Tamed, he is supreme among those who tame;
At peace, he is the sage among those who bring peace;
Freed, he is the chief of those who set free;
Delivered, he is the best of those who deliver.
Anguttara Nikaya 4:23
In the
Buddha's
Words
An Anthology of Discourses
from the Pali Canon
Edited and introduced by
Bhikkhu Bodhi
WISDOM PUBLICATIONS BOSTON
Wisdom Publications, Inc.
199 Elm Street
Somerville MA 02144 USA
www.wisdompubs .org
© 2005 Bhikkhu Bodhi
All rights reserved.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any means without the prior permis-
sion of the copyright owner. Enquiries should be made to the publisher.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Tipitaka. Suttapitaka. English. Selections.
In the Buddha's words : an anthology of discourses from the Pali canon /
edited and introduced
by Bhikkhu Bodhi. 1st ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and indexes.
ISBN 0-86171-491-1 (pbk.: alk. paper)
I. Bodhi, Bhikkhu. II. Title.
BQ1192.E53B63 2005
294.3'823~dc22 2005018336
ISBN 0-86171-491-1
Second Printing
09 08 07
5 4 3
The publisher thanks AltaMira Press for kindly granting permission to include in this
anthology selections from Numerical Discourses of the Buddha: An Anthology ofSuttas
from the Anguttara Nikaya, translated and edited by Nyanaponika Thera and Bhikkhu
Bodhi.
Cover and interior design by Gopa&Ted2, Inc. Set in DPalatino 10/13.75 pt.
Frontispiece: Standing Buddha Shakyamuni. Pakistan, Gandhara, second century A.D.
Height 250cm. Courtesy of the Miho Museum, Japan, www.miho.jp
Wisdom Publications' books are printed on acid-free paper and meet the guidelines
for permanence and durability set by the Council of Library Resources.
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CONTENTS
Foreword
Y
[[
Preface }
x
List of Abbreviations
x
iv
Key to the Pronunciation of Pali xv
Detailed List of Contents
X
vii
General Introduction \
I. The Human Condition YJ
II. The Bringer of Light 41
III. Approaching the Dhamma 79
IV. The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 105
V The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 143
VI. Deepening One's Perspective on the World 181
VII. The Path to Liberation 221
VIII. Mastering the Mind 255
IX. Shining the Light of Wisdom 299
X. The Planes of Realization 371
Notes 425
Table of Sources 459
Glossary 459
Bibliography 471
Index of Subjects 473
Index of Proper Names 479
Index of Similes 48 \
Index of Selected Pali Sutta Titles 483
Index of Pali Terms Discussed in the Notes 485
FOREWORD
More than two thousand five hundred years have
kind teacher, Buddha Sakyamuni, taught in India. Hi
all who wished to heed it, inviting them to listen, ref
examine what he had to say. He addressed differen
groups of people over a period of more than forty y
After the Buddha's passing, a record of what he sai
as an oral tradition. Those who heard the teachings v\
meet with others for communal recitations of what tr
memorized. In due course, these recitations from m
ten down, laying the basis for all subsequent Buddl
Pali Canon is one of the earliest of these written rec
complete early version that has survived intact. With
the texts known as the Nikayas have the special val
gle cohesive collection of the Buddha's teachings i:
These teachings cover a wide range of topics; they c
renunciation and liberation, but also with the orooer
viii In the Buddha's Words
transport and communication that I most appreciate is the vastly
expanded opportunities those interested in Buddhism now have to
acquaint themselves with the full range of Buddhist teaching and prac-
tice. What I find especially encouraging about this book is that it shows
so clearly how much fundamentally all schools of Buddhism have in
common. I congratulate Bhikkhu Bodhi for this careful work of com-
pilation and translation. I offer my prayers that readers may find
advice here—and the inspiration to put it into practice—that will
enable them to develop inner peace, which I believe is essential for the
creation of a happier and more peaceful world.
Venerable Tenzin Gyatso, the Fourteenth Dalai Lama
May 10,2005
PREFACE
The Buddha's discourses preserved in the Pali Canon are called suttas,
the Pali equivalent of the Sanskrit word sutras. Although the Pali
Canon belongs to a particular Buddhist school—the Theravada, or
School of the Elders—the suttas are by no means exclusively
Theravada Buddhist texts. They stem from the earliest period of
Buddhist literary history, a period lasting roughly a hundred years
after the Buddha's death, before the original Buddhist community
divided into different schools. The Pali suttas have counterparts from
other early Buddhist schools now extinct, texts sometimes strikingly
similar to the Pali version, differing mainly in settings and arrange-
ments but not in points of doctrine. The suttas, along with their coun-
terparts, thus constitute the most ancient records of the Buddha's
teachings available to us; they are the closest we can come to what the
historical Buddha Gotama himself actually taught. The teachings
found in them have served as the fountainhead, the primal source, for
all the evolving streams of Buddhist doctrine and practice through the
centuries. For this reason, they constitute the common heritage of the
entire Buddhist tradition, and Buddhists of all schools who wish to
understand the taproot of Buddhism should make a close and careful
study of them a priority.
In the Pali Canon the Buddha's discourses are preserved in collec-
tions called Nikayas. Over the past twenty years, fresh translations of
the four major Nikayas have appeared in print, issued in attractive
and affordable editions. Wisdom Publications pioneered this devel-
opment in 1987 when it published Maurice Walshe's translation of the
Digha Nikaya, The Long Discourses of the Buddha. Wisdom followed
this precedent by bringing out, in 1995, my revised and edited ver-
sion of Bhikkhu Nanamoli's handwritten translation of the Majjhima
Nikaya, The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, followed in 2000 by
my new translation of the complete Samyutta Nikaya, The Connected
Discourses of the Buddha. In 1999, under the imprint of The Sacred Lit-
erature Trust Series, AltaMira Press published an anthology of suttas
ix
x In the Buddha's Words
from the Ahguttara Nikaya, translated by the late Nyanaponika Thera
and myself, titled Numerical Discourses of the Buddha. I am currently
working on a new translation of the entire Ahguttara Nikaya, intended
for Wisdom Publication's Teachings of the Buddha series.
Many who have read these larger works have told me, to my satis-
faction, that the translations brought the suttas to life for them. Yet
others who earnestly sought to enter the deep ocean of the Nikayas
told me something else. They said that while the language of the trans-
lations made them far more accessible than earlier translations, they
were still grappling for a standpoint from which to see the suttas'
overall structure, a framework within which they all fit together. The
Nikayas themselves do not offer much help in this respect, for their
arrangement—with the notable exception of the Samyutta Nikaya,
which does have a thematic structure—appears almost haphazard.
In an ongoing series of lectures I began giving at Bodhi Monastery
in New Jersey in January 2003,1 devised a scheme of my own to organ-
ize the contents of the Majjhima Nikaya. This scheme unfolds the
Buddha's message progressively, from the simple to the difficult, from
the elementary to the profound. Upon reflection, I saw that this scheme
could be applied not only to the Majjhima Nikaya, but to the four
Nikayas as a whole. The present book organizes suttas selected from all
four Nikayas within this thematic and progressive framework.
This book is intended for two types of readers. The first are those
not yet acquainted with the Buddha's discourses who feel the need for
a systematic introduction. For such readers, any of the Nikayas is
bound to appear opaque. All four of them, viewed at once, may seem
like a jungle—entangling and bewildering, full of unknown beasts—or
like the great ocean—vast, tumultuous, and forbidding. I hope that
this book will serve as a map to help them wend their way through the
jungle of the suttas or as a sturdy ship to carry them across the ocean
of the Dhamma.
The second type of readers for whom this book is meant are those,
already acquainted with the suttas, who still cannot see how they fit
together into an intelligible whole. For such readers, individual sut-
tas may be comprehensible in themselves, but the texts in their total-
ity appear like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle scattered across a table. Once
one understands the scheme in this book, one should come away with
a clear idea of the architecture of the teaching. Then, with a little
Preface xi
reflection, one should be able to determine the place any sutta occu-
pies in the edifice of the Dhamma, whether or not it has been included
in this anthology.
This anthology, or any other anthology of suttas, is no substitute
for the Nikayas themselves. My hope is twofold, corresponding to the
two types of readers for whom this volume is designed: (1) that new-
comers to Early Buddhist literature find this volume whets their
appetite for more and encourages them to take the plunge into the
full Nikayas; and (2) that experienced readers of the Nikayas finish the
book with a better understanding of material with which they are
already familiar.
If this anthology is meant to make any other point, it is to convey the
sheer breadth and range of the Buddha's wisdom. While Early
Buddhism is sometimes depicted as a discipline of world renunciation
intended primarily for ascetics and contemplatives, the ancient dis-
courses of the Pali Canon clearly show us how the Buddha's wisdom
and compassion reached into the very depths of mundane life, provid-
ing ordinary people with guidelines for proper conduct and right
understanding. Far from being a creed for a monastic elite, ancient
Buddhism involved the close collaboration of householders and
monastics in the twin tasks of maintaining the Buddha's teachings and
assisting one another in their efforts to walk the path to the extinction
of suffering. To fulfill these tasks meaningfully, the Dhamma had to
provide them with deep and inexhaustible guidance, inspiration, joy,
and consolation. It could never have done this if it had not directly
addressed their earnest efforts to combine social and family obliga-
tions with an aspiration to realize the highest.
Almost all the passages included in this book have been selected from
the above-mentioned publications of the four Nikayas. Almost all have
undergone revisions, usually slight but sometimes major, to accord with
my own evolving understanding of the texts and the Pali language. I
have newly translated a small number of suttas from the Ahguttara
Nikaya not included in the above-mentioned anthology. I have also
included a handful of suttas from the Udana and Itivuttaka, two small
books belonging to the fifth Nikaya, the Khuddaka Nikaya, the Minor
or Miscellaneous Collection. I have based these on John D. Ireland's
translation, published by the Buddhist Publication Society in Sri Lanka,
but again I have freely modified them to fit my own preferred diction
xii In the Buddha's Words
and terminology. I have given preference to suttas in prose over those
in verse, as being more direct and explicit. When a sutta concludes
with verses, if these merely restate the preceding prose, in the interest
of space I have omitted them.
Each chapter begins with an introduction in which I explain the
salient concepts relevant to the theme of the chapter and try to show
how the texts I have chosen exemplify that theme. To clarify points
arising from both the introductions and the texts, I have included end-
notes. These often draw upon the classical commentaries to the
Nikayas ascribed to the great South Indian commentator Acariya
Buddhaghosa, who worked in Sri Lanka in the fifth century C.E. For the
sake of concision, I have not included as many notes in this book as I
have in my other translations of the Nikayas. These notes are also not
as technical as those in the full translations.
References to the sources follow each selection. References to texts
from the Digha Nikaya and Majjhima Nikaya cite the number and
name of the sutta (in Pali); passages from these two collections retain
the paragraph numbers used in The Long Discourses of the Buddha and
The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, so readers who wish to
locate these passages within the full translations can easily do so. Ref-
erences to texts from the Samyutta Nikaya cite samyutta and sutta num-
ber; texts from the Ahguttara Nikaya cite nipata and sutta number (the
Ones and the Twos also cite chapters within the nipata followed by the
sutta number). References to texts from the Udana cite nipata and sutta
number; texts from the Itivuttaka cite simply the sutta number. All ref-
erences are followed by the volume and page number in the Pali Text
Society's standard edition of these works.
I am grateful to Timothy McNeill and David Kittelstrom of Wisdom
Publications for urging me to persist with this project in the face of long
periods of indifferent health. Samanera Analayo and Bhikkhu Nyana-
sobhano read and commented on my introductions, and John Kelly
reviewed proofs of the entire book. All three made useful suggestions,
for which I am grateful. John Kelly also prepared the table of sources
that appears at the back of the book. Finally, I am grateful to my stu-
dents of Pali and Dhamma studies at Bodhi Monastery for their enthu-
siastic interest in the teachings of the Nikayas, which inspired me to
compile this anthology. I am especially thankful to the monastery's
extraordinary founder, Ven. Master Jen-Chun, for welcoming a monk of
Preface xiii
another Buddhist tradition to his monastery and for his interest in
bridging the Northern and Southern transmissions of the Early
Buddhist teachings.
Bhikkhu Bodhi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AN Ahguttara Nikaya
Be Burmese-script Chattha Sahgayana ed.
Ce Sinhala-script ed.
DN Digha Nikaya
Ee Roman-script ed. (PTS)
It Itivuttaka
MN Majjhima Nikaya
Mp Manorathapurani (Ahguttara Nikaya Commentary)
Ppn Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga translation)
Ps Papancasudani (Majjhima Nikaya Commentary)
Ps-pt Papancasudani-purana-tika (Majjhima Nikaya
Subcommentary)
Skt Sanskrit
SN Samyutta Nikaya
Spk Saratthappakasini (Samyutta Nikaya Commentary)
Spk-pt Saratthappakasini-purana-tika (Samyutta Nikaya
Subcommentary)
Sv Sumahgalavilasini (Digha Nikaya Commentary)
Ud Udana
Vibh Vibhahga
Vin Vinaya
Vism Visuddhimagga
All page references to Pali texts are to the page numbers of the Pali
Text Society's editions.
xiv
KEY TO THE PRONUNCIATION OF PALI
The Pali Alphabet
Vowels: a, a, i, i, u, u, e, o
Consonants:
Gutterals k, kh, g, gh, h
Palatals c, ch, j, jh, n
Cerebrals t, th, d, dh, n
Dentals t, th, d, dh, n
Labials p, ph, b, bh, m
Other y, r, 1,1, v, s, h, m
Pronunciation
a as in "cut" u as in "put"
a as in "father" u as in "rule"
i as in "king" e as in "way"
i as in "keen" o as in "home"
Of the vowels, e and o are long before a single consonant and short
before a double consonant. Among the consonants, g is always pro-
nounced as in "good," c as in "church," n as in "onion." The cerebrals
(or retroflexes) are spoken with the tongue on the roof of the mouth;
the dentals with the tongue on the upper teeth. The aspirates—kh, gh,
ch, jh, th, dh, th, dh, ph, bh—are single consonants pronounced with
slightly more force than the nonaspirates, e.g., th as in "Thomas" (not
as in "thin"); ph as in "putter" (not as in "phone"). Double consonants
are always enunciated separately, e.g., dd as in "mad dog," gg as in
"big gun." The pure nasal (niggahita) m is pronounced like the ng in
"song." An o and an e always carry a stress; otherwise the stress falls
on a long vowel—a, i, u,—or on a double consonant, or on m.
XV
DETAILED LIST OF CONTENTS
I. THE HUMAN CONDITION
Introduction
1. Old Age, Illness, and Death
(1) Aging and Death (SN 3:3)
(2) The Simile of the Mountain (SN 3:25)
(3) The Divine Messengers (from AN 3:35)
2. The Tribulations of Unreflective Living
(1) The Dart of Painful Feeling (SN 36:6)
(2) The Vicissitudes of Life (AN 8:6)
(3) Anxiety Due to Change (SN 22:7)
3. A World in Turmoil
(1) The Origin of Conflict (AN 2: iv, 6, abridged)
(2) Why Do Beings Live in Hate? (from DN 21)
(3) The Dark Chain of Causation (from DN 15)
(4) The Roots of Violence and Oppression (from
4. Without Discoverable Beginning
(1) Grass and Sticks (SN 15:1)
(2) Balls of Clay (SN 15:2)
(3) The Mountain (SN 15:5)
(4) The River Ganges (SN 15:8)
(5) Dog on a Leash (SN 22:99)
II. THE BRINGER OF LIGHT
Introduction
1. One Person (AN Lxiii, 1, 5, 6)
xvii
xviii In the Buddha's Words
2. The Buddha's Conception and Birth (MN 123, abridged) 50
3. The Quest for Enlightenment
(1) Seeking the Supreme State of Sublime Peace
(from MN 26) 54
(2) The Realization of the Three True Knowledges
(from MN 36) 59
(3) The Ancient City (SN 12:65) 67
4. The Decision to Teach (from MN 26) 69
5. The First Discourse (SN 56:11) 75
III. APPROACHING THE DHAMMA
Introduction 81
1. Not a Secret Doctrine (AN 3:129) 88
2. No Dogmas or Blind Belief (AN 3:65) 88
3. The Visible Origin and Passing Away of Suffering (SN 42:11) 91
4. Investigate the Teacher Himself (MN 47) 93
5. Steps toward the Realization of Truth (from MN 95) 96
IV THE HAPPINESS VISIBLE IN THIS PRESENT LIFE
Introduction 107
1. Upholding the Dhamma in Society
(1) The King of the Dhamma (AN 3:14) 115
(2) Worshipping the Six Directions (from DN 31) 116
2. The Family
(1) Parents and Children
(a) Respect for Parents (AN 4:63) 118
(b) Repaying One's Parents (AN 2: iv, 2) 119
(2) Husbands and Wives
(a) Different Kinds of Marriages (AN 4:53) 119
(b) How to Be United in Future Lives (AN 4:55) 121
(c) Seven Kinds of Wives (AN 7:59) 122
Detailed List of Contents xix
3. Present Welfare, Future Welfare (AN 8:54) 124
4. Right Livelihood
(1) Avoiding Wrong Livelihood (AN 5:177) 126
(2) The Proper Use of Wealth (AN 4:61) 126
(3) A Family Man's Happiness (AN 4:62) 127
5. The Woman of the Home (AN 8:49) 128
6. The Community
(1) Six Roots of Dispute (from MN 104) 130
(2) Six Principles of Cordiality (from MN 104) 131
(3) Purification Is for All Four Castes (MN 93, abridged) 132
(4) Seven Principles of Social Stability (from DN 16) 137
(5) The Wheel-Turning Monarch (from DN 26) 139
(6) Bringing Tranquillity to the Land (from DN 5) 141
V. THE WAY TO A FORTUNATE REBIRTH
Introduction 145
1. The Law of Kamma
(1) Four Kinds of Kamma (AN 4:232) 155
(2) Why Beings Fare as They Do after Death (MN 41) 156
(3) Kamma and Its Fruits (MN 135) 161
2. Merit: The Key to Good Fortune
(1) Meritorious Deeds (It 22) 166
(2) Three Bases of Merit (AN 8:36) 167
(3) The Best Kinds of Confidence (AN 4:34) 168
3. Giving
(1) If People Knew the Result of Giving (It 26) 169
(2) Reasons for Giving (AN 8:33) 169
(3) The Gift of Food (AN 4:57) 170
(4) A Superior Person's Gifts (AN 5:148) 170
(5) Mutual Support (It 107) 171
xx In the Buddha's Words
(6) Rebirth on Account of Giving (AN 8:35) 171
4. Moral Discipline
(1) The Five Precepts (AN 8:39) 172
(2) The Uposatha Observance (AN 8:41) 174
5. Meditation
(1) The Development of Loving-Kindness (It 27) 176
(2) The Four Divine Abodes (from MN 99) 177
(3) Insight Surpasses All (AN 9:20, abridged) 178
VI. DEEPENING ONE'S PERSPECTIVE ON THE WORLD
Introduction 183
1. Four Wonderful Things (AN 4:128) 191
2. Gratification, Danger, and Escape
(1) Before My Enlightenment (AN 3:101 §§1-2) 192
(2) I Set Out Seeking (AN 3:101 §3) 192
(3) If There Were No Gratification (AN 3:102) 193
3. Properly Appraising Objects of Attachment (MN 13) 193
4. The Pitfalls in Sensual Pleasures
(1) Cutting Off All Affairs (from MN 54) 199
(2) The Fever of Sensual Pleasures (from MN 75) 202
5. Life Is Short and Fleeting (AN 7:70) 206
6. Four Summaries of the Dhamma (from MN 82) 207
7. The Danger in Views
(1) A Miscellany on Wrong View (AN 1: xvii, 1, 3, 7, 9) 213
(2) The Blind Men and the Elephant (Ud 6:4) 214
(3) Held by Two Kinds of Views (It 49) 215
8. From the Divine Realms to the Infernal (AN 4:125) 216
9. The Perils of Samsara
(1) The Stream of Tears (SN 15:3) 218
(2) The Stream of Blood (SN 15:13) 219
Detailed List of Contents xxi
VII. THE PATH TO LIBERATION
Introduction 223
1. Why Does One Enter the Path?
(1) The Arrow of Birth, Aging, and Death (MN 63) 230
(2) The Heartwood of the Spiritual Life (MN 29) 233
(3) The Fading Away of Lust (SN 45:41-48, combined) 238
2. Analysis of the Eightfold Path (SN 45:8) 239
3. Good Friendship (SN 45:2) 240
4. The Graduated Training (MN 27) 241
5. The Higher Stages of Training with Similes (from MN 39) 250
VIII. MASTERING THE MIND
Introduction 257
1. The Mind Is the Key (AN 1: iii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 9,10) 267
2. Developing a Pair of Skills
(1) Serenity and Insight (AN 2: iii, 10) 267
(2) Four Ways to Arahantship (AN 4:170) 268
(3) Four Kinds of Persons (AN 4:94) 269
3. The Hindrances to Mental Development (SN 46:55, abridged) 270
4. The Refinement of the Mind (AN 3:100 §§1-10) 273
5. The Removal of Distracting Thoughts (MN 20) 275
6. The Mind of Loving-Kindness (from MN 21) 278
7. The Six Recollections (AN 6:10) 279
8. The Four Establishments of Mindfulness (MN 10) 281
9. Mindfulness of Breathing (SN 54:13) 290
10. The Achievement of Mastery (SN 28:1-9, combined) 296
IX. SHINING THE LIGHT OF WISDOM
Introduction 301
1. Images of Wisdom
xxii In the Buddha's Words
(1) Wisdom as a Light (AN 4:143) 321
(2) Wisdom as a Knife (from MN 146) 321
2. The Conditions for Wisdom (AN 8:2, abridged) 322
3. A Discourse on Right View (MN 9) 323
4. The Domain of Wisdom
(1) By Way of the Five Aggregates
(a) Phases of the Aggregates (SN 22:56) 335
(b) A Catechism on the Aggregates (SN 22:82 =
MN 109, abridged) 338
(c) The Characteristic of Nonself (SN 22:59) 341
(d) Impermanent, Suffering, Nonself (SN 22:45) 342
(e) A Lump of Foam (SN 22:95) 343
(2) By Way of the Six Sense Bases
(a) Full Understanding (SN 35:26) 345
(b) Burning (SN 35:28) 346
(c) Suitable for Attaining Nibbana (SN 35:147-49,
combined) 346
(d) Empty Is the World (SN 35:85) 347
(e) Consciousness Too Is Nonself (SN 35:234) 348
(3) By Way of the Elements
(a) The Eighteen Elements (SN 14:1) 349
(b) The Four Elements (SN 14:37-39, combined) 349
(c) The Six Elements (from MN 140) 350
(4) By Way of Dependent Origination
(a) What Is Dependent Origination? (SN 12:1) 353
(b) The Stableness of the Dhamma (SN 12:20) 353
(c) Forty-Four Cases of Knowledge (SN 12:33) 355
(d) A Teaching by the Middle (SN 12:15) 356
(e) The Continuance of Consciousness (SN 12:38) 357
(f) The Origin and Passing of the World (SN 12:44) 358
Detailed List of Contents
xxm
(5) By Way of the Four Noble Truths
(a) The Truths of All Buddhas (SN 56:24) 359
(b) These Four Truths Are Actual (SN 56:20) 359
(c) A Handful of Leaves (SN 56:31) 360
(d) Because of Not Understanding (SN 56:21) 361
(e) The Precipice (SN 56:42) 361
(f) Making the Breakthrough (SN 56:32) 362
(g) The Destruction of the Taints (SN 56:25) 363
5. The Goal of Wisdom
(1) What is Nibbana? (SN 38:1) 364
(2) Thirty-Three Synonyms for Nibbana (SN 43:1-44,
combined) 364
(3) There Is That Base (Ud 8:1) 365
(4) The Unborn (Ud 8:3) 366
(5) The Two Nibbana Elements.(It 44) 366
(6) The Fire and the Ocean (from MN 72) 367
X. THE PLANES OF REALIZATION
Introduction 373
1. The Field of Merit for the World
(1) Eight Persons Worthy of Gifts (AN 8:59) 385
(2) Differentiation by Faculties (SN 48:18) 385
(3) In the Dhamma Well Expounded (from MN 22) 386
(4) The Completeness of the Teaching (from MN 73) 386
(5) Seven Kinds of Noble Persons (from MN 70) 390
2. Stream-Entry
(1) The Four Factors Leading to Stream-Entry (SN 55:5) 392
(2) Entering the Fixed Course of Rightness (SN 25:1) 393
(3) The Breakthrough to the Dhamma (SN 13:1) 394
(4) The Four Factors of a Stream-Enterer (SN 55:2) 394
xxiv In the Buddha's Words
(5) Better than Sovereignty over the Earth (SN 55:1) 395
3. Nonreturning
(1) Abandoning the Five Lower Fetters (from MN 64) 396
(2) Four Kinds of Persons (AN 4:169) 398
(3) Six Things that Partake of True Knowledge (SN 55:3) 400
(4) Five Kinds of Nonreturners (SN 46:3) 401
4. TheArahant
(1) Removing the Residual Conceit "I Am" (SN 22:89) 402
(2) The Trainee and the Arahant (SN 48:53) 406
(3) A Monk Whose Crossbar Has Been Lifted (from MN 22) 407
(4) Nine Things an Arahant Cannot Do (from AN 9:7) 408
(5) A Mind Unshaken (from AN 9:26) 408
(6) The Ten Powers of an Arahant Monk (AN 10:90) 409
(7) The Sage at Peace (from MN 140) 410
(8) Happy Indeed Are the Arahants (from SN 22:76) 412
5. TheTathagata
(1) The Buddha and the Arahant (SN 22:58) 413
(2) For the Welfare of Many (It 84) 414
(3) Sariputta's Lofty Utterance (SN 47:12) 415
(4) The Powers and Grounds of Self-Confidence
(from MN 12)
417
(5) The Manifestation of Great Light (SN 56:38) 419
(6) The Man Desiring Our Good (from MN 19) 420
(7) The Lion (SN 22:78) 420
(8) Why Is He Called the Tathagata? (AN 4:23 = It 112) 421
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
UNCOVERING THE STRUCTURE OF THE TEACHING
Though his teaching is highly systematic, there is no single text that can
be ascribed to the Buddha in which he defines the architecture of the
Dhamma, the scaffolding upon which he has framed his specific
expressions of the doctrine. In the course of his long ministry, the
Buddha taught in different ways as determined by occasion and cir-
cumstances. Sometimes he would enunciate invariable principles that
stand at the heart of the teaching. Sometimes he would adapt the teach-
ing to accord with the proclivities and aptitudes of the people who
came to him for guidance. Sometimes he would adjust his exposition
to fit a situation that required a particular response. But throughout
the collections of texts that have come down to us as authorized "Word
of the Buddha," we do not find a single sutta, a single discourse, in
which the Buddha has drawn together all the elements of his teaching
and assigned them to their appropriate place within some comprehen-
sive system.
While in a literate culture in which systematic thought is highly
prized the lack of such a text with a unifying function might be viewed
as a defect, in an entirely oral culture—as was the culture in which the
Buddha lived and moved—the lack of a descriptive key to the
Dhamma would hardly be considered significant. Within this culture
neither teacher nor student aimed at conceptual completeness. The
teacher did not intend to present a complete system of ideas; his pupils
did not aspire to learn a complete system of ideas. The aim that united
them in the process of learning—the process of transmission—was that
of practical training, self-transformation, the realization of truth, and
unshakable liberation of the mind. This does not mean, however, that
the teaching was always expediently adapted to the situation at hand.
At times the Buddha would present more panoramic views of the
Dhamma that united many components of the path in a graded or
wide-ranging structure. But though there are several discourses that
1
2 In the Buddha's Words
exhibit a broad scope, they still do not embrace all elements of the
Dhamma in one overarching scheme.
The purpose of the present book is to develop and exemplify such a
scheme. I here attempt to provide a comprehensive picture of the
Buddha's teaching that incorporates a wide variety of suttas into an
organic structure. This structure, I hope, will bring to light the inten-
tional pattern underlying the Buddha's formulation of the Dhamma
and thus provide the reader with guidelines for understanding Early
Buddhism as a whole. I have selected the suttas almost entirely from
the four major collections or Nikayas of the Pali Canon, though I have
also included a few texts from the Udana and Itivuttaka, two small
books of the fifth collection, the Khuddaka Nikaya. Each chapter opens
with its own introduction, in which I explain the basic concepts of
Early Buddhism that the texts exemplify and show how the texts give
expression to these ideas.
I will briefly supply background information about the Nikayas later
in this introduction. First, however, I want to outline the scheme that I
have devised to organize the suttas. Although my particular use of this
scheme may be original, it is not sheer innovation but is based upon a
threefold distinction that the Pali commentaries make among the types
of benefits to which the practice of the Dhamma leads: (1) welfare and
happiness visible in this present life; (2) welfare and happiness per-
taining to future lives; and (3) the ultimate good, Nibbana (Skt: nirvana).
Three preliminary chapters are designed to lead up to those that
embody this threefold scheme. Chapter I is a survey of the human con-
dition as it is apart from the appearance of a Buddha in the world. Per-
haps this was the way human life appeared to the Bodhisatta—the
future Buddha—as he dwelled in the Tusita heaven gazing down upon
the earth, awaiting the appropriate occasion to descend and take his
final birth. We behold a world in which human beings are driven help-
lessly toward old age and death; in which they are spun around by cir-
cumstances so that they are oppressed by bodily pain, cast down by
failure and misfortune, made anxious and fearful by change and dete-
rioration. It is a world in which people aspire to live in harmony, but
in which their untamed emotions repeatedly compel them, against
their better judgment, to lock horns in conflicts that escalate into vio-
lence and wholesale devastation. Finally, taking the broadest view of
all, it is a world in which sentient beings are propelled forward, by
General Introduction 3
their own ignorance and craving, from one life to the next, wandering
blindly through the cycle of rebirths called samsdra.
Chapter II gives an account of the Buddha's descent into this world.
He comes as the "one person" who appears out of compassion for the
world, whose arising in the world is "the manifestation of great light."
We follow the story of his conception and birth, of his renunciation
and quest for enlightenment, of his realization of the Dhamma, and of
his decision to teach. The chapter ends with his first discourse to the
five monks, his first disciples, in the Deer Park near Baranasi.
Chapter III is intended to sketch the special features of the Buddha's
teaching, and by implication, the attitude with which a prospective
student should approach the teaching. The texts tell us that the Dhamma
is not a secret or esoteric teaching but one which "shines when taught
openly." It does not demand blind faith in authoritarian scriptures, in
divine revelations, or infallible dogmas, but invites investigation and
appeals to personal experience as the ultimate criterion for determin-
ing its validity. The teaching is concerned with the arising and cessa-
tion of suffering, which can be observed in one's own experience. It
does not set up even the Buddha as an unimpeachable authority but
invites us to examine him to determine whether he fully deserves our
trust and confidence. Finally, it offers a step-by-step procedure
whereby we can put the teaching to the test, and by doing so realize the
ultimate truth for ourselves.
With chapter IV, we come to texts dealing with the first of the three
types of benefit the Buddha's teaching is intended to bring. This is
called "the welfare and happiness visible in this present life" (dittha-
dhamma-hitasukha), the happiness that comes from following ethical
norms in one's family relationships, livelihood, and communal activi-
ties. Although Early Buddhism is often depicted as a radical discipline
of renunciation directed to a transcendental goal, the Nikayas reveal
the Buddha to have been a compassionate and pragmatic teacher who
was intent on promoting a social order in which people can live
together peacefully and harmoniously in accordance with ethical
guidelines. This aspect of Early Buddhism is evident in the Buddha's
teachings on the duties of children to their parents, on the mutual obli-
gations of husbands and wives, on right livelihood, on the duties of the
ruler toward his subjects, and on the principles of communal harmony
and respect.
4 In the Buddha's Words
The second type of benefit to which the Buddha's teaching leads is
the subject of chapter V, called the welfare and happiness pertaining to
the future life (samparayika-hitasukha). This is the happiness achieved by
obtaining a fortunate rebirth and success in future lives through one's
accumulation of merit. The term "merit" (punna) refers to wholesome
kamma (Skt: karma) considered in terms of its capacity to produce
favorable results within the round of rebirths. I begin this chapter with
a selection of texts on the teaching of kamma and rebirth. This leads us
to general texts on the idea of merit, followed by selections on the three
principal "bases of merit" recognized in the Buddha's discourses: giv-
ing (dana), moral discipline (sila), and meditation (bhavana). Since med-
itation figures prominently in the third type of benefit, the kind of
meditation emphasized here, as a basis for merit, is that productive of
the most abundant mundane fruits, the four "divine abodes" (brahma-
vihara), particularly the development of loving-kindness.
Chapter VI is transitional, intended to prepare the way for the chap-
ters to follow. While demonstrating that the practice of his teaching
does indeed conduce to happiness and good fortune within the bounds
of mundane life, in order to lead people beyond these bounds, the
Buddha exposes the danger and inadequacy in all conditioned exis-
tence. He shows the defects in sensual pleasures, the shortcomings of
material success, the inevitability of death, and the impermanence of
all conditioned realms of being. To arouse in his disciples an aspiration
for the ultimate good, Nibbana, the Buddha again and again under-
scores the perils of samsara. Thus this chapter comes to a climax with
two dramatic texts that dwell on the misery of bondage to the round
of repeated birth and death.
The following four chapters are devoted to the third benefit that the
Buddha's teaching is intended to bring: the ultimate good (paramattha),
the attainment of Nibbana. The first of these, chapter VII, gives a gen-
eral overview of the path to liberation, which is treated analytically
through definitions of the factors of the Noble Eightfold Path and
dynamically through an account of the training of the monk. A long
sutta on the graduated path surveys the monastic training from the
monk's initial entry upon the life of renunciation to his attainment of
arahantship, the final goal.
Chapter VIII focuses upon the taming of the mind, the major empha-
sis in the monastic training. I here present texts that discuss the obstacles
General Introduction 5
to mental development, the means of overcoming these obstacles, dif-
ferent methods of meditation, and the states to be attained when the
obstacles are overcome and the disciple gains mastery over the mind.
In this chapter I introduce the distinction between samatha and vipas-
sana, serenity and insight, the one leading to samadhi or concentration,
the other to panna or wisdom. However, I include texts that treat
insight only in terms of the methods used to generate it, not in terms
of its actual contents.
Chapter IX, titled "Shining the Light of Wisdom," deals with the
content of insight. For Early Buddhism, and indeed for almost all
schools of Buddhism, insight or wisdom is the principal instrument of
liberation. Thus in this chapter I focus on the Buddha's teachings about
such topics pivotal to the development of wisdom as right view, the
five aggregates, the six sense bases, the eighteen elements, dependent
origination, and the Four Noble Truths. This chapter ends with a selec-
tion of texts on Nibbana, the ultimate goal of wisdom.
The final goal is not achieved abruptly but by passing through a
series of stages that transforms an individual from a worldling into an
arahant, a liberated one. Thus chapter X, "The Planes of Realization,"
offers a selection of texts on the main stages along the way. I first pres-
ent the series of stages as a progressive sequence; then I return to the
starting point and examine three major milestones within this progres-
sion: stream-entry, the stage of nonreturner, and arahantship. I con-
clude with a selection of suttas on the Buddha, the foremost among
the arahants, here spoken of under the epithet he used most often
when referring to himself, the Tathagata.
THE ORIGINS OF THE NIKAYAS
The texts I have drawn upon to fill out my scheme are, as I said above,
all selected from the Nikayas, the main sutta collections of the Pali
Canon. Some words are needed to explain the origin and nature of
these sources.
The Buddha did not write down any of his teachings, nor were his
teachings recorded in writing by his disciples. Indian culture at the
time the Buddha lived was still predominantly preliterate.
1
The
uctdha wandered from town to town in the Ganges plain, instructing
is monks and nuns, giving sermons to the householders who flocked
6 In the Buddha's Words
to hear him speak, answering the questions of curious inquirers, and
engaging in discussions with people from all classes of society. The
records of his teachings that we have do not come from his own pen or
from transcriptions made by those who heard the teaching from him,
but from monastic councils held after his parinibbdna—his passing
away into Nibbana—for the purpose of preserving his teaching.
It is unlikely that the teachings that derive from these councils repro-
duce the Buddha's words verbatim. The Buddha must have spoken
spontaneously and elaborated upon his themes in countless ways in
response to the varied needs of those who sought his guidance. Pre-
serving by oral transmission such a vast and diverse range of material
would have bordered on the impossible. To mold the teachings into a
format suitable for preservation, the monks responsible for the texts
would have had to collate and edit them to make them better fit for lis-
tening, retention, recitation, memorization, and repetition—the five
major elements in oral transmission. This process, which may have
already been started during the Buddha's lifetime, would have led to
a fair degree of simplification and standardization of the material to be
preserved.
During the Buddha's life, the discourses were classified into nine
categories according to literary genre: sutta (prose discourses), geyya
(mixed prose and verse), veyydkarana (answers to questions), gdthd
(verse), uddna (inspired utterances), itivuttaka (memorable sayings),
jdtaka (stories of past births), abbhutadhamma (marvelous qualities), and
vedulla (catechism).
2
At some point after his passing, this older system
of classification was superceded by a new scheme that ordered the
texts into larger collections called Nikayas in the Theravada Buddhist
tradition, Agamas in the North Indian Buddhist schools.
3
Exactly when
the Nikaya-Agama scheme became ascendant is not known with cer-
tainty, but once it appeared it almost completely replaced the older
system.
The Cullavagga, one of the books of the Pali Vinaya Pitaka, gives an
account of how the authorized texts were compiled at the first
Buddhist council, held three months after the Buddha's parinibbana.
According to this report, shortly after the Buddha's death the Elder
Mahakassapa, the de facto head of the Sahgha, selected five hundred
monks, all arahants or liberated ones, to meet and compile an authori-
tative version of the teachings. The council took place during the rains
General Introduction 7
retreat at Rajagaha (modern Rajgir), the capital of Magadha, then the
dominant state of Middle India.
4
Mahakassapa first requested the Ven-
erable Upali, the foremost specialist on disciplinary matters, to recite
the Vinaya. On the basis of this recitation, the Vinaya Pitaka, the Com-
pilation on Discipline, was compiled. Mahakassapa then asked the
Venerable Ananda to recite "the Dhamma," that is, the discourses, and
on the basis of this recitation, the Sutta Pitaka, the Compilation of Dis-
courses, was compiled.
The Cullavagga states that when Ananda recited the Sutta Pitaka,
the Nikayas had the same contents as they do now, with the suttas
arranged in the same sequence as they now appear in the Pali Canon.
This narrative doubtlessly records past history through the lens of a
later period. The Agamas of the Buddhist schools other than the
Theravada correspond to the four main Nikayas, but they classify sut-
tas differently and arrange their contents in a different order from the
Pali Nikayas. This suggests that if the Nikaya-Agama arrangement did
arise at the first council, the council had not yet assigned suttas to their
definitive places within this scheme. Alternatively, it is possible that
this scheme arose at a later time. It could have arisen at some point
after the first council but before the Sahgha split into different schools.
If it arose during the age of sectarian divisions, it might have been
introduced by one school and then been borrowed by others, so that
the different schools would assign their texts to different places within
the scheme.
While the Cullavagga's account of the first council may include leg-
endary material mixed with historical fact, there seems no reason to
doubt Ananda's role in the preservation of the discourses. As the
Buddha's personal attendant, Ananda had learned the discourses from
him and the other great disciples, kept them in mind, and taught them
to others. During the Buddha's life he was praised for his retentive
capacities and was appointed "foremost of those who have learned
much" (etadaggam bahussutdnam).
5
Few monks might have had memories
that could equal Ananda's, but already during the Buddha's lifetime
individual monks must already have begun to specialize in particular
texts. The standardization and simplification of the material would have
facilitated memorization. Once the texts became classified into the
Nikayas or Agamas, the challenges of preserving and transmitting the
textual heritage were solved by organizing the textual specialists into
8 In the Buddha's Words
companies dedicated to specific collections. Different companies
within the Sahgha could thus focus on memorizing and interpreting
different collections and the community as a whole could avoid plac-
ing excessive demands on the memories of individual monks. It is in
this way that the teachings would continue to be transmitted for the
next three or four hundred years, until they were finally committed to
writing.
6
In the centuries following the Buddha's death, the Sahgha became
divided over disciplinary and doctrinal issues until by the third cen-
tury after the parinibbana there were at least eighteen schools of Sec-
tarian Buddhism. Each sect probably had its own collection of texts
regarded more or less as canonical, though it is possible that several
closely affiliated sects shared the same collection of authorized texts.
While the different Buddhist schools may have organized their collec-
tions differently and though their suttas show differences of detail, the
individual suttas are often remarkably similar, sometimes almost iden-
tical, and the doctrines and practices they delineate are essentially the
same.
7
The doctrinal differences between the schools did not arise from
the suttas themselves but from the interpretations the textual special-
ists imposed upon them. Such differences hardened after the rival
schools formalized their philosophical principles in treatises and com-
mentaries expressive of their distinctive standpoints on doctrinal
issues. So far as we can determine, the refined philosophical systems
had only minimal impact on the original texts themselves, which the
schools seemed disinclined to manipulate to suit their doctrinal agen-
das. Instead, by means of their commentaries, they endeavored to
interpret the suttas in such a way as to draw out ideas that supported
their own views. It is not unusual for such interpretations to appear
defensive and contrived, apologetic against the words of the original
texts themselves.
THE PALI CANON
Sadly, the canonical collections belonging to most of the early main-
stream Indian Buddhist schools were lost when Indian Buddhism was
devastated by the Muslims that invaded northern India in the
eleventh and twelfth centuries. These invasions effectively sounded
the death knell for Buddhism in the land of its birth. Only one complete
General Introduction 9
collection of texts belonging to one of the early Indian Buddhist schools
managed to survive intact. This is the collection preserved in the lan-
guage that we know as Pali. This collection belonged to the ancient
Theravada school, which had been transplanted to Sri Lanka in the
third century B.C.E. and thus managed to escape the havoc wrought
upon Buddhism in the motherland. About the same time, the
Theravada also spread to southeast Asia and in later centuries became
dominant throughout the region.
The Pali Canon is the collection of texts the Theravada regards as
Word of the Buddha (buddhuvacana). The fact that the texts of this col-
lection have survived as a single canon does not mean that they can all
be dated from the same period; nor does it mean that the texts forming
its most archaic nucleus are necessarily more ancient than their coun-
terparts from the other Buddhist schools, many of which have sur-
vived in Chinese or Tibetan translation as parts of entire canons or, in
a few cases, as isolated texts in another Indian language. Nevertheless,
the Pali Canon has a special importance for us, and that is so for at
least three reasons.
First, it is a complete collection all belonging to a single school. Even
though we can detect clear signs of historical development between
different portions of the canon, this alignment with a single school
gives the texts a certain degree of uniformity. Among the texts stem-
ming from the same period, we can even speak of a homogeneity of
contents, a single flavor underlying the manifold expressions of the
doctrine. This homogeneity is most evident in the four Nikayas and the
older parts of the fifth Nikaya and gives us reason to believe that with
these texts—allowing for the qualification expressed above, that they
have counterparts in other extinct Buddhist schools—we have reached
the most ancient stratum of Buddhist literature discoverable.
Second, the entire collection has been preserved in a Middle Indo-
Aryan language, one closely related to the language (or, more likely, the
various regional dialects) that the Buddha himself spoke. We call this
language Pali, but the name for the language actually arose through a
misunderstanding. The word pali properly means "text," that is, the
canonical text as distinct from the commentaries. The commentators
refer to the language in which the texts are preserved as pdlibhasa, "the
language of the texts." At some point, the term was misunderstood to
mean "the Pali language," and once the misconception arose, it took
10 In the Buddha's Words
root and has been with us ever since. Scholars regard this language as
a hybrid showing features of several Prakrit dialects used around the
third century B.C.E., subjected to a partial process of Sanskritization.
8
While the language is not identical with any the Buddha himself would
have spoken, it belongs to the same broad linguistic family as those he
might have used and originates from the same conceptual matrix. This
language thus reflects the thought-world that the Buddha inherited
from the wider Indian culture into which he was born, so that its words
capture the subtle nuances of that thought-world without the intru-
sion of alien influences inevitable in even the best and most scrupulous
translations. This contrasts with Chinese, Tibetan, or English transla-
tions of the texts, which reverberate with the connotations of the words
chosen from the target languages.
The third reason the Pali Canon has special importance is that this
collection is authoritative for a contemporary Buddhist school. Unlike
the textual collections of the extinct schools of Early Buddhism, which
are purely of academic interest, this collection still brims with life. It
inspires the faith of millions of Buddhists from the villages and monas-
teries of Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Southeast Asia to the cities and med-
itation centers of Europe and the Americas. It shapes their
understanding, guides them in the face of difficult ethical choices,
informs their meditative practices, and offers them the keys to liberat-
ing insight.
The Pali Canon is commonly known as the Tipitaka, the "Three Bas-
kets" or "Three Compilations." This threefold classification was not
unique to the Theravada school but was in common use among the
Indian Buddhist schools as a way to categorize the Buddhist canonical
texts. Even today the scriptures preserved in Chinese translation are
known as the Chinese Tripitaka. The three compilations of the Pali
Canon are:
1. The Vinaya Pitaka, the Compilation of Discipline, which contains
the rules laid down for the guidance of the monks and nuns and
the regulations prescribed for the harmonious functioning of the
monastic order.
2. The Sutta Pitaka, the Compilation of Discourses, which contains
the suttas, the discourses of the Buddha and those of his chief dis-
ciples as well as inspirational works in verse, verse narratives, and
certain works of a commentarial nature.
General Introduction 11
3. The Abhidhamma Pitaka, the Compilation of Philosophy, a collec-
tion of seven treatises which subject the Buddha's teachings to rig-
orous philosophical systematization.
The Abhidhamma Pitaka is obviously the product of a later phase in
the evolution of Buddhist thought than the other two Pitakas. The Pali
version represents the Theravada school's attempt to systematize the
older teachings. Other early schools apparently had their own Abhi-
dhamma systems. The Sarvastivada system is the only one whose
canonical texts have survived intact in their entirety. Its canonical col-
lection, like the Pali version, also consists of seven texts. These were
originally composed in Sanskrit but are preserved in full only in Chi-
nese translation. The system they define differs significantly from that
of its Theravada counterpart in both formulation and philosophy.
The Sutta Pitaka, which contains the records of the Buddha's dis-
courses and discussions, consists of five collections called Nikayas. In
the age of the commentators they were also known as Agamas, like
their counterparts in northern Buddhism. The four major Nikayas are:
1. The Digha Nikaya: the Collection of Long Discourses, thirty-four
suttas arranged into three vaggas, or books.
2. The Majjhima Nikaya: the Collection of Middle Length Discourses,
152 suttas arranged into three vaggas.
3. The Samyutta Nikaya: the Collection of Connected Discourses,
close to three thousand short suttas grouped into fifty-six chapters,
called samyuttas, which are in turn collected into five vaggas.
4. The Anguttara Nikaya: the Collection of Numerical Discourses (or,
perhaps, "Incremental Discourses"), approximately 2,400 short
suttas arranged into eleven chapters, called nipatas.
The Digha Nikaya and Majjhima Nikaya, at first glance, seem to be
established principally on the basis of length: the longer discourses go
into the Digha, the middle-length discourses into the Majjhima. Care-
ful tabulations of their contents, however, suggest that another factor
might underlie the distinction between these two collections. The sut-
tas of the Digha Nikaya are largely aimed at a popular audience and
seem intended to attract potential converts to the teaching by demon-
strating the superiority of the Buddha and his doctrine. The suttas of
the Majjhima Nikaya are largely directed inward toward the Buddhist
12 In the Buddha's Words
community and seem designed to acquaint newly ordained monks
with the doctrines and practices of Buddhism.
9
It remains an open
question whether these pragmatic purposes are the determining crite-
ria behind these two Nikayas or whether the primary criterion is
length, with these pragmatic purposes following as incidental conse-
quences of their respective differences in length.
The Samyutta Nikaya is organized by way of subject matter. Each
subject is the "yoke" (samyoga) that connects the discourses into a
samyutta or chapter. Hence the title of the collection, the "connected
(samyutta) discourses." The first book, the Book with Verses, is unique
in being compiled on the basis of literary genre. It contains suttas in
mixed prose and verse, arranged in eleven chapters by way of subject.
The other four books each contain long chapters dealing with the prin-
cipal doctrines of Early Buddhism. Books II, III, and IV each open with
a long chapter devoted to a theme of major importance, respectively,
dependent origination (chapter 12: Nidanasamyutta); the five aggre-
gates (chapter 22: Khandhasamyutta); and the six internal and external
sense bases (chapter 35: Salayatanasamyutta). Part V deals with the prin-
cipal groups of training factors that, in the post-canonical period, come
to be called the thirty-seven aids to enlightenment (bodhipakkhiya
dhamma). These include the Noble Eightfold Path (chapter 45: Magga-
samyutta), the seven factors of enlightenment (chapter 46: Bojjhanga-
samyutta), and the four establishments of mindfulness (chapter 47:
Satipatthanasamyutta). From its contents, we might infer that the
Samyutta Nikaya was intended to serve the needs of two groups
within the monastic order. One consisted of the doctrinal specialists,
those monks and nuns who sought to explore the deep implications of
the Dhamma and to elucidate them for their companions in the reli-
gious life. The other consisted of those devoted to the meditative devel-
opment of insight.
The Ahguttara Nikaya is arranged according to a numerical scheme
derived from a peculiar feature of the Buddha's pedagogic method. To
facilitate easy comprehension and memorization, the Buddha often
formulated his discourses by way of numerical sets, a format that
helped to ensure that the ideas he conveyed would be easily retained
in mind. The Ahguttara Nikaya assembles these numerical discourses
into a single massive work of eleven nipatas or chapters, each repre-
senting the number of terms upon which the constituent suttas have
General Introduction 13
been framed. Thus there is the Chapter of the Ones (ekakanipata), the
Chapter of the Twos (dukanipata), the Chapter of the Threes (tikanipata),
and so forth, up to and ending with the Chapter of the Elevens (ekadasa-
nipata). Since the various groups of path factors have been included in
the Samyutta, the Ahguttara can focus on those aspects of the training
that have not been incorporated in the repetitive sets. The Ahguttara
includes a notable proportion of suttas addressed to lay followers deal-
ing with the ethical and spiritual concerns of life within the world,
including family relationships (husbands and wives, children and par-
ents) and the proper ways to acquire, save, and utilize wealth. Other
suttas deal with the practical training of monks. The numerical
arrangement of this collection makes it particularly convenient for for-
mal instruction, and thus it could easily be drawn upon by elder
monks when teaching their pupils and by preachers when giving ser-
mons to the laity.
Besides the four major Nikayas, the Pali Sutta Pitaka includes a fifth
Nikaya, called the Khuddaka Nikaya. This name means the Minor Col-
lection. Perhaps it originally consisted merely of a number of minor
works that could not be included in the four major Nikayas. But as
more and more works were composed over the centuries and added to
it, its dimensions swelled until it became the most voluminous of the
five Nikayas. At the heart of the Khuddaka, however, is a small constel-
lation of short works composed either entirely in verse (namely, the
Dhammapada, the Theragatha, and the Therigatha) or in mixed prose
and verse (the Suttanipata, the Udana, and the Itivuttaka) whose style
and contents suggest that they are of great antiquity. Other texts of the
Khuddaka Nikaya—such as the Patisambhidamagga and the two Nid-
desas—represent the standpoint of the Theravada school and thus
must have been composed during the period of Sectarian Buddhism,
when the early schools had taken their separate paths of doctrinal
development.
The four Nikayas of the Pali Canon have counterparts in the Agamas
of the Chinese Tripitaka, though these are from different early schools.
Corresponding to each respectively there is a Dirghagama, probably
stemming from the Dharmaguptaka school, originally translated from
a Prakrit; a Madhyamagama and Samyuktagama, both stemming from
the Sarvastivada school and translated from Sanskrit; and an
Ekottaragama, corresponding to the Ahguttara Nikaya, generally
14 In the Buddha's Words
thought to have belonged to a branch of the Mahasarighika school and
to have been translated from a dialect of Middle Indo-Aryan or a
mixed dialect of Prakrit with Sanskrit elements. The Chinese Tripitaka
also contains translations of individual surras from the four collections,
perhaps from still other unidentified schools, and translations of indi-
vidual books from the Minor Collection, including two translations of
a Dhammapada (one said to be very close to the Pali version) and parts
of the Suttanipata, which, as a unified work, does not exist in Chinese
translation.
10
A NOTE ON STYLE
Readers of the Pali suttas are often annoyed by the repetitiveness of the
texts. It is difficult to tell how much of this stems from the Buddha
himself, who as an itinerant preacher must have used repetition to rein-
force his points, and how much is due to the compilers. It is obvious,
however, that a high proportion of the repetitiveness derives from the
process of oral transmission.
To avoid excessive repetitiveness in the translation I have had to
make ample use of elisions. In this respect I follow the printed editions
of the Pali texts, which are also highly abridged, but a translation
intended for a contemporary reader requires still more compression if
it is to avoid risking the reader's wrath. On the other hand, I have been
keen to see that nothing essential to the original text, including the fla-
vor, has been lost due to the abridgment. The ideals of considerateness
to the reader and fidelity to the text sometimes make contrary demands
on a translator.
The treatment of repetition patterns in which the same utterance is
made regarding a set of items is a perpetual problem in translating
Pali suttas. When translating a sutta about the five aggregates, for
example, one is tempted to forgo the enumeration of the individual
aggregates and instead turn the sutta into a general statement about
the aggregates as a class. To my mind, such an approach risks turning
translation into paraphrase and thereby losing too much of the origi-
nal. My general policy has been to translate the full utterance in rela-
tion to the first and last members of the set and merely to enumerate
the intermediate members separated by ellipsis points. Thus, in a sutta
about the five aggregates, I render the statement in full only for form
General Introduction 15
and consciousness, and in between have "feeling ... perception ... voli-
tional formations ...," implying thereby that the full statement like-
wise applies to them.
This approach has required the frequent use of ellipsis points, a prac-
tice that also invites criticism. When faced with repetitive passages in
the narrative framework, I have sometimes condensed them rather
than use ellipsis points to show where text is being elided. However,
with texts of doctrinal exposition I adhere to the practice described in
the preceding paragraph. I think the translator has the responsibility,
when translating passages of doctrinal significance, to show exactly
where text is being elided, and for this ellipsis points remain the best
tool at hand.
I. The Human Condition
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INTRODUCTION
Like other religious teachings, the Buddha's teaching originates as a re-
sponse to the strains at the heart of the human condition. What distin-
guishes his teaching from other religious approaches to the human
condition is the directness, thoroughness, and uncompromising real-
ism with which he looks at these strains. The Buddha does not offer us
palliatives that leave the underlying maladies untouched beneath the
surface; rather, he traces our existential illness down to its most funda-
mental causes, so persistent and destructive, and shows us how these
can be totally uprooted. However, while the Dhamma will eventually
lead to the wisdom that eradicates the causes of suffering, it does not
begin there but with observations about the hard facts of everyday
experience. Here too its directness, thoroughness, and tough realism
are evident. The teaching begins by calling upon us to develop a fac-
ulty called yoniso manasikara, careful attention. The Buddha asks us to
stop drifting thoughtlessly through our lives and instead to pay care-
ful attention to simple truths that are everywhere available to us, clam-
oring for the sustained consideration they deserve.
One of the most obvious and inescapable of these truths is also
among the most difficult for us to fully acknowledge, namely, that we
are bound to grow old, fall ill, and die. It is commonly assumed that the
Buddha beckons us to recognize the reality of old age and death in
order to motivate us to enter the path of renunciation leading to
Nibbana, complete liberation from the round of birth and death. How-
ever, while this may be his ultimate intention, it is not the first response
he seeks to evoke in us when we turn to him for guidance. The initial
response the Buddha intends to arouse in us is an ethical one. By call-
ing our attention to our bondage to old age and death, he seeks to
inspire in us a firm resolution to turn away from unwholesome ways
of living and to embrace instead wholesome alternatives.
Again, the Buddha grounds his initial ethical appeal not only upon
a compassionate feeling for other beings, but also upon our instinctive
concern for our own long-term welfare and happiness. He tries to
19
20
In the Buddha's Words
make us see that to act in accordance with ethical guidelines will enable
us to secure our own well-being both now and in the long-term future.
His argument hinges on the important premise that actions have con-
sequences. If we are to alter our accustomed ways, we must be con-
vinced of the validity of this principle. Specifically, to change from a
self-stultifying way of life to one that is truly fruitful and inwardly
rewarding, we must realize that our actions have consequences for our-
selves, consequences that can rebound upon us both in this life and in
subsequent lives.
The three suttas that constitute the first section of this chapter estab-
lish this point eloquently, each in its own way. Text 1,1(1) enunciates the
inevitable law that all beings who have taken birth must undergo aging
and death. Although at first glance the discourse seems to be stating a
mere fact of nature, by citing as examples members of the upper strata
of society (wealthy rulers, brahmins, and householders) and liberated
arahants, it insinuates a subtle moral message into its words. Text 1,1(2)
brings out this message more explicitly with its impressive simile of the
mountain, which drives home the point that when "aging and death
are rolling in" on us, our task in life is to live righteously and do whole-
some and meritorious deeds. The sutta on the "divine messengers"
Text 1,1(3)—establishes the corollary to this: when we fail to recognize
the "divine messengers" in our midst, when we miss the hidden warn-
ing signals of old age, illness, and death, we become negligent and
behave recklessly, creating unwholesome kamma with the potential to
yield dreadful consequences.
The realization that we are bound to grow old and die breaks the
spell of infatuation cast over us by sensual pleasures, wealth, and
power. It dispels the mist of confusion and motivates us to take fresh
stock of our purposes in life. We may not be ready to give up family
and possessions for a life of homeless wandering and solitary medita-
tion, but this is not an option the Buddha generally expects of his
householder disciples. Rather, as we saw above, the first lesson he
draws from the fact that our lives end in old age and death is an ethi-
cal one interwoven with the twin principles of kamma and rebirth. The
law of kamma stipulates that our unwholesome and wholesome
actions have consequences extending far beyond this present life:
unwholesome actions lead to rebirth in states of misery and bring
future pain and suffering; wholesome actions lead to a pleasant rebirth
The Human Condition 21
and bring future well-being and happiness. Since we have to grow old
and die, we should be constantly aware that any present prosperity
we might enjoy is merely temporary. We can enjoy it only as long as we
are young and healthy; and when we die, our newly acquired kamma
will gain the opportunity to ripen and bring forth its own results. We
must then reap the due fruits of our deeds. With an eye to our long-
term future welfare, we should scrupulously avoid evil deeds that
result in suffering and diligently engage in wholesome deeds that gen-
erate happiness here and in future lives.
In the second section, we explore three aspects of human life that I
have collected under the heading "The Tribulations of Unreflective
Living." These types of suffering differ from those connected with old
age and death in an important respect. Old age and death are bound
up with bodily existence and are thus unavoidable, common to both
ordinary people and liberated arahants—a point made in the first text
of this chapter. In contrast, the three texts included in this section all
distinguish between the ordinary person, called "the uninstructed
worldling" (assutava puthujjana), and the wise follower of the Buddha,
called the "instructed noble disciple" (sutava ariyasavaka).
The first of these distinctions, drawn in Text 1,2(1), revolves
around the response to painful feelings. Both the worldling and the
noble disciple experience painful bodily feelings, but they respond
to these feelings differently. The worldling reacts to them with aver-
sion and therefore, on top of the painful bodily feeling, also experi-
ences a painful mental feeling: sorrow, resentment, or distress. The
noble disciple, when afflicted with bodily pain, endures such feeling
patiently, without sorrow, resentment, or distress. It is commonly
assumed that physical and mental pain are inseparably linked, but
the Buddha makes a clear demarcation between the two. He holds
that while bodily existence is inevitably bound up with physical
pain, such pain need not trigger the emotional reactions of misery,
fear, resentment, and distress with which we habitually respond to
it. Through mental training we can develop the mindfulness and
clear comprehension necessary to endure physical pain coura-
geously, with patience and equanimity. Through insight we can
develop sufficient wisdom to overcome our dread of painful feel-
mgs and our need to seek relief in distracting binges of sensual self-
indulgence.
22 In the Buddha's Words
Another aspect of human life that brings to the fore the differences
between the worldling and the noble disciple is the changing vicissi-
tudes of fortune. The Buddhist texts neatly reduce these to four pairs
of opposites, known as the eight worldly conditions (attha lokadhamma):
gain and loss, fame and disrepute, praise and blame, pleasure and
pain. Text 1,2(2) shows how the worldling and the noble disciple dif-
fer in their responses to these changes. While the worldling is elated by
success in achieving gain, fame, praise, and pleasure, and dejected
when confronted with their undesired opposites, the noble disciple
remains unperturbed. By applying the understanding of imperma-
nence to both favorable and unfavorable conditions, the noble disciple
can abide in equanimity, not attached to favorable conditions, not
repelled by unfavorable ones. Such a disciple gives up likes and dis-
likes, sorrow and distress, and ultimately wins the highest blessing of
all: complete freedom from suffering.
Text 1,2(3) examines the plight of the worldling at a still more funda-
mental level. Because they misconceive things, worldlings are agitated
by change, especially when that change affects their own bodies and
minds. The Buddha classifies the constituents of body and mind into
five categories known as "the five aggregates subject to clinging"
(panc'upadanakkhandha): form, feeling, perception, volitional forma-
tions, and consciousness (for details, see pp. 305-07). These five aggre-
gates are the building blocks that we typically use to construct our
sense of personal identity; they are the things that we cling to as being
"mine," "I," and "my self." Whatever we identify with, whatever we
take to be a self or the possessions of a self, can all be classified among
these five aggregates. The five aggregates are thus the ultimate
grounds of "identification" and "appropriation," the two basic activi-
ties by which we establish a sense of selfhood. Since we invest our
notions of selfhood and personal identity with an intense emotional
concern, when the objects to which they are fastened—the five aggre-
gates—undergo change, we naturally experience anxiety and distress.
In our perception, it is not mere impersonal phenomena that are under-
going change, but our very identities, our cherished selves, and this is
what we fear most of all. However, as the present text shows, a noble
disciple has clearly seen with wisdom the delusive nature of all notions
of permanent selfhood and thus no longer identifies with the five
aggregates. Therefore the noble disciple can confront their change
The Human Condition 23
without anxious concern, unperturbed in the face of their alteration,
decay, and destruction.
Agitation and turmoil afflict human life not only at the personal and
private level, but also in our social interactions. From the most ancient
times, our world has always been one of violent confrontations and
conflict. The names, places, and instruments of destruction may
change, but the forces behind them, the motivations, the expressions of
greed and hate, remain fairly constant. The Nikayas testify that the
Buddha was intensely aware of this dimension of the human condition.
Although his teaching, with its stress on ethical self-discipline and
mental self-cultivation, aims primarily at personal enlightenment and
liberation, the Buddha also sought to offer people a refuge from the
violence and injustice that rack human lives in such cruel ways. This
is apparent in his emphasis on loving-kindness and compassion; on
harmlessness in action and gentleness in speech; and on the peaceful
resolution of disputes.
The third section of this chapter includes four short texts dealing
with the underlying roots of violent conflict and injustice. We can see
from these texts that the Buddha does not clamor for changes merely
in the outer structures of society. He demonstrates that these dark phe-
nomena are external projections of the unwholesome proclivities of the
human mind and thus points to the need for inner change as a paral-
lel condition for establishing peace and social justice. Each of the four
texts included in this section traces conflict, violence, political oppres-
sion, and economic injustice back to their causes; each in its own way
locates these causes within the mind.
Text 1,3(1) explains conflicts between laypeople as arising from
attachment to sensual pleasures, conflicts between ascetics as arising
from attachment to views. Text 1,3(2), a dialogue between the Buddha
and Sakka, the pre-Buddhistic Indian ruler of the devas, traces hatred
and enmity to envy and niggardliness; from there the Buddha traces
them back to fundamental distortions that affect the way our percep-
tion and cognition process the information provided by the senses.
Text 1,3(3) offers another version of the famous chain of causation,
which proceeds from feeling to craving, and from craving via other
conditions to "the taking up of clubs and weapons" and other types
of violent behavior. Text 1,3(4) depicts how the three roots of evil
greed, hatred, and delusion—have terrible repercussions on a whole
24 In the Buddha's Words
society, issuing in violence, the lust for power, and the unjust inflic-
tion of suffering. All four texts imply that any significant and lasting
transformations of society require significant changes in the moral
fiber of individual human beings; for as long as greed, hatred, and
delusion run rampant as determinants of conduct, the consequences
are bound to be consistently detrimental.
The Buddha's teaching addresses a fourth aspect of the human con-
dition which, unlike the three we have so far examined, is not imme-
diately perceptible to us. This is our bondage to the round of rebirths.
From the selection of texts included in the final section in this chapter,
we see that the Buddha teaches our individual lifespan to be merely a
single phase within a series of rebirths that has been proceeding with-
out any discernible beginning in time. This series of rebirths is called
samsdra, a Pali word which suggests the idea of directionless wander-
ing. No matter how far back in time we may seek a beginning to the
universe, we never find an initial moment of creation. No matter how
far back we may trace any given individual sequence of lives, we can
never arrive at a first point. According to Texts 1,4(1) and 1,4(2), even
if we were to trace the sequence of our mothers and fathers across
world systems, we would only come upon still more mothers and
fathers stretching back into the far horizons.
Moreover, the process is not only beginningless but is also poten-
tially endless. As long as ignorance and craving remain intact, the
process will continue indefinitely into the future with no end in sight.
For the Buddha and Early Buddhism, this is above all the defining cri-
sis at the heart of the human condition: we are bound to a chain of
rebirths, and bound to it by nothing other than our own ignorance and
craving. The pointless wandering on in samsara occurs against a cos-
mic background of inconceivably vast dimensions. The period of time
that it takes for a world system to evolve, reach its phase of maximum
expansion, contract, and then disintegrate is called a kappa (Skt: kalpa),
an eon. Text 1,4(3) offers a vivid simile to suggest the eon's duration;
Text 1,4(4), another vivid simile to illustrate the incalculable number of
the eons through which we have wandered.
As beings wander and roam from life to life, shrouded in darkness,
they fall again and again into the chasm of birth, aging, sickness, and
death. But because their craving propels them forward in a relentless
quest for gratification, they seldom pause long enough to step back
The Human Condition 25
and attend carefully to their existential plight. As Text 1,4(5) states, they
instead just keep revolving around the "five aggregates" in the way a
dog on a leash might run around a post or pillar. Since their ignorance
prevents them from recognizing the vicious nature of their condition,
they cannot discern even the tracks of a path to deliverance. Most
beings live immersed in the enjoyment of sensual pleasures. Others,
driven by the need for power, status, and esteem, pass their lives in
vain attempts to fill an unquenchable thirst. Many, fearful of annihila-
tion at death, construct belief systems that ascribe to their individual
selves, their souls, the prospect of eternal life. A few yearn for a path
to liberation but do not know where to find one. It was precisely to
offer such a path that the Buddha has appeared in our midst.
I. THE HUMAN CONDITION
1. OLD AGE, ILLNESS, AND DEATH
(1) Aging and Death
At Savatthi, King Pasenadi of Kosala said to the Blessed One: "Vener-
able sir, is anyone who is born free from aging and death?"
1
"Great king, no one who is born is free from aging and death. Even
those affluent khattiyas—rich, with great wealth and property, with
abundant gold and silver, abundant treasures and commodities, abun-
dant wealth and grain—because they have been born, are not free from
aging and death. Even those affluent brahmins ... affluent household-
ers—rich ... with abundant wealth and grain—because they have been
born, are not free from aging and death. Even those monks who are
arahants, whose taints are destroyed, who have lived the holy life,
done what had to be done, laid down the burden, reached their own
goal, utterly destroyed the fetters of existence, and are completely lib-
erated through final knowledge: even for them this body is subject to
breaking up, subject to being laid down.
2
"The beautiful chariots of kings wear out,
This body too undergoes decay.
But the Dhamma of the good does not decay:
So the good proclaim along with the good."
(SN 3:3; I 71 <163-64>)
(2) The Simile of the Mountain
At Savatthi, in the middle of the day, King Pasenadi of Kosala
approached the Blessed One, paid homage to him, and sat down to
one side. The Blessed One then asked him: "Now where are you com-
ing from, great king, in the middle of the day?"
"Just now, venerable sir, I have been engaged in those affairs of
kingship typical for kings, who are intoxicated with the intoxication
26
The Human Conditio?! 27
of sovereignty, who are obsessed by greed for sensual pleasures, who
have attained stable control in their country, and who rule having con-
quered a great sphere of territory on earth."
"What do you think, great king? Suppose a man would come to you
from the east, one who is trustworthy and reliable, and would tell you:
'For sure, great king, you should know this: I am coming from the east,
and there I saw a great mountain high as the clouds coming this way,
crushing all living beings. Do whatever you think should be done, great
king.' Then a second man would come to you from the west... a third
man from the north ... and a fourth man from the south, one who is
trustworthy and reliable, and would tell you: 'For sure, great king, you
should know this: I am coming from the south, and there I saw a great
mountain high as the clouds coming this way, crushing all living beings.
Do whatever you think should be done, great king.' If, great king, such
a great peril should arise, such a terrible destruction of human life, the
human state being so difficult to obtain, what should be done?"
"If, venerable sir, such a great peril should arise, such a terrible
destruction of human life, the human state being so difficult to obtain,
what else should be done but to live by the Dhamma, to live right-
eously, and to do wholesome and meritorious deeds?"
"I inform you, great king, I announce to you, great king: aging and
death are rolling in on you. When aging and death are rolling in on
you, great king, what should be done?"
"As aging and death are rolling in on me, venerable sir, what else
should be done but to live by the Dhamma, to live righteously, and to
do wholesome and meritorious deeds?
"Venerable sir, kings intoxicated with the intoxication of sovereignty,
obsessed by greed for sensual pleasures, who have attained stable con-
trol in their country and rule over a great sphere of territory, conquer
by means of elephant battles, cavalry battles, chariot battles, and
infantry battles; but there is no hope of victory by such battles, no
chance of success, when aging and death are rolling in. In this royal
court, venerable sir, there are counselors who, when the enemies arrive,
are capable of dividing them by subterfuge; but there is no hope of vic-
tory by subterfuge, no chance of success, when aging and death are
rolling in. In this royal court, venerable sir, there exists abundant bul-
lion and gold stored in vaults and lofts, and with such wealth we are
capable of mollifying the enemies when they come; but there is no
28 In the Buddha's Words
hope of victory by wealth, no chance of success, when aging and death
are rolling in. As aging and death are rolling in on me, venerable sir,
what else should I do but live by the Dhamma, live righteously, and do
wholesome and meritorious deeds?"
"So it is, great king! So it is, great king! As aging and death are rolling
in on you, what else should you do but live by the Dhamma, live right-
eously, and do wholesome and meritorious deeds?"
This is what the Blessed One said. Having said this, the Fortunate
One, the Teacher, further said this:
"Just as mountains of solid rock,
Massive, reaching to the sky,
Might draw together from all sides,
Crushing all in the four quarters
So aging and death come
Rolling over living beings
"Khattiyas, brahmins, vessas, suddas,
Outcasts and scavengers:
They spare none along the way
But come crushing everything.
"There's no hope there for victory
By elephant troops, chariots, and infantry.
One can't defeat them by subterfuge,
Or buy them off by means of wealth.
"Therefore a person of wisdom here,
Out of regard for his own good,
Steadfast, should settle faith
In the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sahgha.
"When one conducts oneself by Dhamma
With body, speech, and mind,
They praise one here in the present life,
And after death one rejoices in heaven."
(SN 3:25; 1100-102 <224-29>)
The Human Condition 29
(3) The Divine Messengers
"There are, monks, three divine messengers.
3
What three?
"There is a person of bad conduct in body, speech, and mind. On the
dissolution of the body, after death, he is reborn in the plane of misery,
in a bad destination, in a lower world, in hell. There the warders of
hell seize him by both arms and take him before Yama, the Lord of
Death,
4
saying: 'This man, your majesty, had no respect for father and
mother, nor for ascetics and brahmins, nor did he honor the elders of
the family. May your majesty inflict due punishment on him!'
"Then, monks, King Yama questions that man, examines him, and
addresses him concerning the first divine messenger: 'Didn't you ever
see, my good man, the first divine messenger appearing among
humankind?'
"And he replies: 'No, Lord, I did not see him.'
"Then King Yama says to him: 'But, my good man, didn't you ever
see a woman or a man, eighty, ninety, or a hundred years old, frail,
bent like a roof bracket, crooked, leaning on a stick, shakily going
along, ailing, youth and vigor gone, with broken teeth, with gray and
scanty hair or bald, wrinkled, with blotched limbs?'
"And the man replies: 'Yes, Lord, I have seen this.'
"Then King Yama says to him: 'My good man, didn't it ever occur to
you, an intelligent and mature person, "I too am subject to old age and
cannot escape it. Let me now do noble deeds by body, speech, and
mind"?'
"'No, Lord, I could not do it. I was negligent.'
"Then King Yama says: 'Through negligence, my good man, you
have failed to do noble deeds by body, speech, and mind. Well, you
will be treated as befits your negligence. That evil action of yours was
not done by mother or father, brothers, sisters, friends or companions,
nor by relatives, devas, ascetics, or brahmins. But you alone have done
that evil deed, and you will have to experience the fruit.'
"When, monks, King Yama has questioned, examined, and
addressed him thus concerning the first divine messenger, he again
questions, examines, and addresses the man about the second one, say-
ing: 'Didn't you ever see, my good man, the second divine messenger
appearing among humankind?'
"'No, Lord, I did not see him.'
30 In the Buddha's Words
"'But, my good man, didn't you ever see a woman or a man who
was sick and in pain, seriously ill, lying in his own filth, having to be
lifted up by some and put to bed by others?'
"'Yes, Lord, I have seen this.'
"'My good man, didn't it ever occur to you, an intelligent and
mature person, "I too am subject to illness and cannot escape it. Let
me now do noble deeds by body, speech, and mind"?'
"'No, Lord, I could not do it. I was negligent.'
"'Through negligence, my good man, you have failed to do noble
deeds by body, speech, and mind. Well, you will be treated as befits
your negligence. That evil action of yours was not done by mother or
father, brothers, sisters, friends or companions, nor by relatives, devas,
ascetics, or brahmins. But you alone have done that evil deed, and you
will have to experience the fruit.'
"When, monks, King Yama has questioned, examined, and addressed
him thus concerning the second divine messenger, he again questions,
examines, and addresses the man about the third one, saying: 'Didn't
you ever see, my good man, the third divine messenger appearing
among humankind?'
"'No, Lord, I did not see him.'
"'But, my good man, didn't you ever see a woman or a man one,
two, or three days dead, the corpse swollen, discolored, and festering?'
"'Yes, Lord, I have seen this.'
"'Then, my good man, didn't it ever occur to you, an intelligent and
mature person, "I too am subject to death and cannot escape it. Let me
now do noble deeds by body, speech, and mind"?'
'"No, Lord, I could not do it. I was negligent.'
"'Through negligence, my good man, you have failed to do noble
deeds by body, speech, and mind. Well, you will be treated as befits
your negligence. That evil action of yours was not done by mother or
father, brothers, sisters, friends or companions, nor by relatives, devas,
ascetics, or brahmins. But you alone have done that evil deed, and you
will have to experience the fruit.'"
(from AN 3:35; 1138-40)
The Human Condition 31
2. THE TRIBULATIONS OF UNREFLECTIVE LIVING
(1) The Dart of Painful Feeling
"Monks, when the uninstructed worldling experiences a painful feel-
ing, he sorrows, grieves, and laments; he weeps beating his breast and
becomes distraught. He feels two feelings—a bodily one and a mental
one. Suppose they were to strike a man with a dart, and then strike
him immediately afterward with a second dart, so that the man would
feel a feeling caused by two darts. So too, when the uninstructed
worldling experiences a painful feeling, he feels two feelings—a bod-
ily one and a mental one.
"While experiencing that same painful feeling, he harbors aversion
toward it. When he harbors aversion toward painful feeling, the under-
lying tendency to aversion toward painful feeling lies behind this.
5
While experiencing painful feeling, he seeks delight in sensual pleas-
ure. For what reason? Because the uninstructed worldling does not
know of any escape from painful feeling other than sensual pleasure.
6
When he seeks delight in sensual pleasure, the underlying tendency to
lust for pleasant feeling lies behind this. He does not understand as it
really is the origin and the passing away, the gratification, the danger,
and the escape in the case of these feelings.
7
When he does not under-
stand these things, the underlying tendency to ignorance in regard to
neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling lies behind this.
"If he feels a pleasant feeling, he feels it attached. If he feels a painful
feeling, he feels it attached. If he feels a neither-painful-nor-pleasant
feeling, he feels it attached. This, monks, is called an uninstructed
worldling who is attached to birth, aging, and death; who is attached
to sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair; who is attached to
suffering, I say.
"Monks, when the instructed noble disciple experiences a painful
feeling, he does not sorrow, grieve, or lament; he does not weep beat-
ing his breast and become distraught.
8
He feels one feeling—a bodily
one, not a mental one. Suppose they were to strike a man with a dart,
but they would not strike him immediately afterward with a second
dart, so that the man would feel a feeling caused by one dart only. So
too, when the instructed noble disciple experiences a painful feeling, he
feels one feeling—a bodily one, and not a mental one.
"While experiencing that same painful feeling, he harbors no aversion
32 In the Buddha's Words
toward it. Since he harbors no aversion toward painful feeling, the
underlying tendency to aversion toward painful feeling does not lie
behind this. While experiencing painful feeling, he does not seek delight
in sensual pleasure. For what reason? Because the instructed noble dis-
ciple knows of an escape from painful feeling other than sensual pleas-
ure. Since he does not seek delight in sensual pleasure, the underlying
tendency to lust for pleasant feeling does not lie behind this. He under-
stands as it really is the origin and the passing away, the gratification,
the danger, and the escape in the case of these feelings. Since he under-
stands these things, the underlying tendency to ignorance in regard to
neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling does not lie behind this.
"If he feels a pleasant feeling, he feels it detached. If he feels a painful
feeling, he feels it detached. If he feels a neither-painful-nor-pleasant
feeling, he feels it detached. This, monks, is called a noble disciple who
is detached from birth, aging, and death; who is detached from sor-
row, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair; who is detached from
suffering, I say.
"This, monks, is the distinction, the disparity, the difference between
the instructed noble disciple and the uninstructed worldling."
(SN 36:6; IV 207-10)
(2) The Vicissitudes of Life
"These eight worldly conditions, monks, keep the world turning
around, and the world turns around these eight worldly conditions.
What eight? Gain and loss, fame and disrepute, praise and blame,
pleasure and pain.
"These eight worldly conditions, monks, are encountered by an unin-
structed worldling, and they are also encountered by an instructed
noble disciple. What now is the distinction, the disparity, the difference
between an instructed noble disciple and an uninstructed worldling?"
"Venerable sir, our knowledge of these things has its roots in the
Blessed One; it has the Blessed One as guide and resort. It would be
good, venerable sir, if the Blessed One would clarify the meaning of that
statement. Having heard it from him, the monks will bear it in mind."
"Listen then, monks, and attend carefully. I shall speak."
"Yes, venerable sir," the monks replied. The Blessed One then
spoke thus:
The Human Condition 33
"When an uninstructed worldling, monks, comes upon gain, he does
not reflect on it thus: 'This gain that has come to me is impermanent,
bound up with suffering, subject to change.' He does not know it as it
really is. And when he comes upon loss, fame and disrepute, praise
and blame, he does not reflect on them thus: 'All these are imperma-
nent, bound up with suffering, subject to change.' He does not know
them as they really are. With such a person, gain and loss, fame and
disrepute, praise and blame, pleasure and pain keep his mind
engrossed. When gain comes he is elated and when he meets with loss
he is dejected. When fame comes he is elated and when he meets with
disrepute he is dejected. When praise comes he is elated and when he
meets with blame he is dejected. When he experiences pleasure he is
elated and when he experiences pain he is dejected. Being thus
involved in likes and dislikes, he will not be freed from birth, aging,
and death, from sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair; he
will not be freed from suffering, I say.
"But, monks, when an instructed noble disciple comes upon gain,
he reflects on it thus: 'This gain that has come to me is impermanent,
bound up with suffering, subject to change.' And so he will reflect
when loss and so forth come upon him. He understands all these things
as they really are, and they do not engross his mind. Thus he will not
be elated by gain and dejected by loss; elated by fame and dejected by
disrepute; elated by praise and dejected by blame; elated by pleasure
and dejected by pain. Having thus given up likes and dislikes, he will
be freed from birth, aging, and death, from sorrow, lamentation, pain,
dejection, and despair; he will be freed from suffering, I say.
"This, monks, is the distinction, the disparity, the difference between
an instructed noble disciple and an uninstructed worldling."
(AN 8:6; IV 157-59)
(3) Anxiety Due to Change
'Monks, I will teach you agitation through clinging and non-agitation
through nonclinging.
9
Listen and attend carefully. I shall speak."
"Yes, venerable sir," those monks replied. The Blessed One said this:
'And how, monks, is there agitation through clinging? Here, monks,
the uninstructed worldling, who is not a seer of the noble ones and is
unskilled and undisciplined in their Dhamma, who is not a seer of
34 In the Buddha's Words
superior persons and is unskilled and undisciplined in their Dhamma,
regards form as self, or self as possessing form, or form as in self, or self
as in form.
10
That form of his changes and alters. With the change and
alteration of form, his consciousness becomes preoccupied with the
change of form. Agitation and a constellation of mental states born of
preoccupation with the change of form remain obsessing his mind.
Because his mind is obsessed, he is frightened, distressed, and anx-
ious, and through clinging he becomes agitated.
"He regards feeling as self ... perception as self ... volitional forma-
tions as self ... consciousness as self, or self as possessing conscious-
ness, or consciousness as in self, or self as in consciousness. That
consciousness of his changes and alters. With the change and alter-
ation of consciousness, his consciousness becomes preoccupied with
the change of consciousness. Agitation and a constellation of mental
states born of preoccupation with the change of consciousness remain
obsessing his mind. Because his mind is obsessed, he is frightened, dis-
tressed, and anxious, and through clinging he becomes agitated.
"It is in such a way, monks, that there is agitation through clinging.
"And how, monks, is there non-agitation through nonclinging?
Here, monks, the instructed noble disciple, who is a seer of the noble
ones and is skilled and disciplined in their Dhamma, who is a seer of
superior persons and is skilled and disciplined in their Dhamma, does
not regard form as self, or self as possessing form, or form as in self, or
self as in form.
11
That form of his changes and alters. Despite the change
and alteration of form, his consciousness does not become preoccu-
pied with the change of form. No agitation and constellation of men-
tal states born of preoccupation with the change of form remain
obsessing his mind. Because his mind is not obsessed, he is not fright-
ened, distressed, or anxious, and through nonclinging he does not
become agitated.
"He does not regard feeling as self ... perception as self ... volitional
formations as self ... consciousness as self, or self as possessing con-
sciousness, or consciousness as in self, or self as in consciousness. That
consciousness of his changes and alters. Despite the change and alter-
ation of consciousness, his consciousness does not become preoccu-
pied with the change of consciousness. No agitation and constellation
of mental states born of preoccupation with the change of conscious-
ness remain obsessing his mind. Because his mind is not obsessed, he
The Human Condition 35
is not frightened, distressed, or anxious, and through nonclinging he
does not become agitated.
"It is in such a way, monks, that there is non-agitation through non-
clinging."
(SN 22:7; III 15-18)
3. A WORLD IN TURMOIL
(1) The Origin of Conflict
The brahmin Aramadanda approached the Venerable Mahakaccana,
12
exchanged friendly greetings with him, and asked him: "Why is it,
Master Kaccana, that khattiyas fight with khattiyas, brahmins with
brahmins, and householders with householders?"
"It is, brahmin, because of attachment to sensual pleasures, adher-
ence to sensual pleasures, fixation on sensual pleasures, addiction to
sensual pleasures, obsession with sensual pleasures, holding firmly to
sensual pleasures that khattiyas fight with khattiyas, brahmins with
brahmins, and householders with householders."
"Why is it, Master Kaccana, that ascetics fight with ascetics?"
"It is, brahmin, because of attachment to views, adherence to views,
fixation on views, addiction to views, obsession with views, holding
firmly to views that ascetics fight with ascetics."
(AN 2: iv, 6, abridged; 166)
(2) Why Do Beings Live in Hate?
2.1. Sakka, ruler of the devas,
13
asked the Blessed One: "Beings wish to
live without hate, harming, hostility, or enmity; they wish to live in
peace. Yet they live in hate, harming one another, hostile, and as ene-
mies. By what fetters are they bound, sir, that they live in such a way?"
[The Blessed One said:] "Ruler of the devas, it is the bonds of envy
and niggardliness that bind beings so that, although they wish to live
without hate, hostility, or enmity, and to live in peace, yet they live in
hate, harming one another, hostile, and as enemies."
This was the Blessed One's reply, and Sakka, delighted, exclaimed:
So it is, Blessed One! So it is, Fortunate One! Through the Blessed One's
answer I have overcome my doubt and gotten rid of uncertainty."
36 In the Buddha's Words
2.2. Then Sakka, having expressed his appreciation, asked another
question: "But, sir, what gives rise to envy and niggardliness, what is
their origin, how are they born, how do they arise? When what is pres-
ent do they arise, and when what is absent do they not arise?"
"Envy and niggardliness, ruler of the devas, arise from liking and dis-
liking; this is their origin, this is how they are born, how they arise. When
these are present, they arise, when these are absent, they do not arise."
"But, sir, what gives rise to liking and disliking...?"—"They arise,
ruler of the devas, from desire...."—"And what gives rise to de-
sire. ..?"—"It arises, ruler of the devas, from thinking. When the mind
thinks about something, desire arises; when the mind thinks of noth-
ing, desire does not arise."
"But, sir, what gives rise to thinking...?"
"Thinking, ruler of the devas, arises from elaborated perceptions
and notions.
14
When elaborated perceptions and notions are present,
thinking arises. When elaborated perceptions and notions are absent,
thinking does not arise."
(from DN 21: Sakkapanha Sutta; II276-77)
(3) The Dark Chain of Causation
9. "Thus, Ananda, in dependence upon feeling there is craving; in
dependence upon craving there is pursuit; in dependence upon pursuit
there is gain; in dependence upon gain there is decision-making; in
dependence upon decision-making there is desire and lust; in depend-
ence upon desire and lust there is attachment; in dependence upon
attachment there is possessiveness; in dependence upon possessive-
ness there is niggardliness; in dependence upon niggardliness there is
defensiveness; and because of defensiveness, various evil unwhole-
some things originate—the taking up of clubs and weapons, conflicts,
quarrels, and disputes, insults, slander, and falsehood."
15
(from DN 15: Mahanidana Sutta; II58)
(4) The Roots of Violence and Oppression
"Greed, hatred, and delusion of every kind are unwholesome.
16
What-
ever action a greedy, hating, and deluded person heaps up—by deeds,
words, or thoughts—that too is unwholesome. Whatever suffering
The Human Condition 37
such a person, overpowered by greed, hatred, and delusion, his
thoughts controlled by them, inflicts under false pretexts upon
another—by killing, imprisonment, confiscation of property, false accu-
sations, or expulsion—being prompted in this by the thought, T have
power and I want power/ all this is unwholesome too."
(from AN 3:69; I 201-2)
4. WITHOUT DISCOVERABLE BEGINNING
(1) Grass and Sticks
The Blessed One said this: "Monks, this samsara is without discover-
able beginning.
17
A first point is not discerned of beings roaming and
wandering on hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving. Suppose,
monks, a man would cut up whatever grass, sticks, branches, and
foliage there are in this Jambudipa
18
and collect them together into a sin-
gle heap. Having done so, he would put them down, saying for each
one: 'This is my mother, this my mother's mother.' The sequence of
that man's mothers and grandmothers would not come to an end, yet
the grass, sticks, branches, and foliage in this Jambudipa would be used
up and exhausted. For what reason? Because, monks, this samsara is
without discoverable beginning. A first point is not discerned of beings
roaming and wandering on hindered by ignorance and fettered by
craving. For such a long time, monks, you have experienced suffering,
anguish, and disaster, and swelled the cemetery. It is enough to become
disenchanted with all formations, enough to become dispassionate
toward them, enough to be liberated from them."
(SN 15:1; II178)
(2) Balls of Clay
"Monks, this samsara is without discoverable beginning. A first point
is not discerned of beings roaming and wandering on hindered by
ignorance and fettered by craving. Suppose, monks, a man would
reduce this great earth to balls of clay the size of jujube kernels and
put them down, saying [for each one]: 'This is my father, this my
father's father.' The sequence of that man's fathers and grandfathers
would not come to an end, yet this great earth would be used up and
38 In the Buddha's Words
exhausted. For what reason? Because, monks, this samsara is without
discoverable beginning. A first point is not discerned of beings roam-
ing and wandering on hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving.
For such a long time, monks, you have experienced suffering, anguish,
and disaster, and swelled the cemetery. It is enough to become disen-
chanted with all formations, enough to become dispassionate toward
them, enough to be liberated from them."
(SN 15:2; II179)
(3) The Mountain
A certain monk approached the Blessed One, paid homage to him, sat
down to one side, and said to him: "Venerable sir, how long is an
eon?"
19
"An eon is long, monk. It is not easy to count it and say it is so many
years, or so many hundreds of years, or so many thousands of years,
or so many hundreds of thousands of years."
"Then is it possible to give a simile, venerable sir?"
"It is possible, monk," the Blessed One said. "Suppose, monk, there
was a great stone mountain a yojana long, a yojana wide, and a yojana
high, without holes or crevices, one solid mass of rock.
20
At the end of
every hundred years a man would stroke it once with a piece of fine
cloth. That great stone mountain might by this effort be worn away
and eliminated but the eon would still not have come to an end. So
long is an eon, monk. And of eons of such length, we have wandered
through so many eons, so many hundreds of eons, so many thousands
of eons, so many hundreds of thousands of eons. For what reason?
Because, monk, this samsara is without discoverable beginning.... It is
enough to be liberated from them."
(SN 15:5; II181-82)
(4) The River Ganges
At Rajagaha, in the Bamboo Grove, the Squirrel Sanctuary, a certain
brahmin approached the Blessed One and exchanged greetings with
him. When they had concluded their greetings and cordial talk, he sat
down to one side and asked him: "Master Gotama, how many eons
have elapsed and gone by?"
The Human Condition 39
"Brahmin, many eons have elapsed and gone by. It is not easy to
count them and say they are so many eons, or so many hundreds of
eons, or so many thousands of eons, or so many hundreds of thou-
sands of eons."
"But is it possible to give a simile, Master Gotama?"
"It is possible, brahmin," the Blessed One said. "Imagine, brahmin,
the grains of sand between the point where the river Ganges originates
and the point where it enters the great ocean: it is not easy to count
these and say there are so many grains of sand, or so many hundreds
of grains, or so many thousands of grains, or so many hundreds of
thousands of grains. Brahmin, the eons that have elapsed and gone by
are even more numerous than that. It is not easy to count them and
say that they are so many eons, or so many hundreds of eons, or so
many thousands of eons, or so many hundreds of thousands of eons.
For what reason? Because, brahmin, this samsara is without discover-
able beginning.... It is enough to be liberated from them."
(SN 15:8; II183-84)
(5) Dog on a Leash
"Monks, this samsara is without discoverable beginning. A first point
is not discerned of beings roaming and wandering on hindered by
ignorance and fettered by craving.
"There comes a time, monks, when the great ocean dries up and
evaporates and no longer exists, but still, I say, there is no making an
end of suffering for those beings roaming and wandering on hindered
by ignorance and fettered by craving.
"There comes a time, monks, when Sineru, the king of mountains,
burns up and perishes and no longer exists, but still, I say, there is no
making an end of suffering for those beings roaming and wandering
on hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving.
"There comes a time, monks, when the great earth burns up and per-
ishes and no longer exists, but still, I say, there is no making an end of
suffering for those beings roaming and wandering on hindered by
ignorance and fettered by craving.
"Suppose, monks, a dog tied up on a leash was bound to a strong
Post or pillar: it would just keep on running and revolving around that
same post or pillar. So too, the uninstructed worldling regards form as
40 In the Buddha's Words
self ... feeling as self ... perception as self ... volitional formations as
self ... consciousness as self.... He just keeps running and revolving
around form, around feeling, around perception, around volitional for-
mations, around consciousness. As he keeps on running and revolving
around them, he is not freed from form, not freed from feeling, not
freed from perception, not freed from volitional formations, not freed
from consciousness. He is not freed from birth, aging, and death; not
freed from sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair; not freed
from suffering, I say."
(SN 22:99; II149-50)
INTRODUCTION
The picture of the human condition that emerges from the Nikayas, as
sketched in the preceding chapter, is the background against which
the manifestation of the Buddha in the world acquires a heightened
and deepened significance. Unless we view the Buddha against this
multi-dimensional background, extending from the most personal
and individual exigencies of the present to the vast, impersonal
rhythms of cosmic time, any interpretation we may arrive at about his
role is bound to be incomplete. Far from capturing the viewpoint of
the compilers of the Nikayas, our interpretation will be influenced as
much by our own presuppositions as by theirs, perhaps even more
so. Depending on our biases and predispositions, we may choose to
regard the Buddha as a liberal ethical reformer of a degenerate Brah-
manism, as a great secular humanist, as a radical empiricist, as an exis-
tential psychologist, as the proponent of a sweeping agnosticism, or as
the precursor of any other intellectual fashion that meets our fancy.
The Buddha who stares back at us from the texts will be too much a
reflection of ourselves, too little an image of the Enlightened One.
Perhaps in interpreting a body of ancient religious literature we can
never fully avoid inserting ourselves and our own values into the sub-
ject we are interpreting. However, though we may never achieve per-
fect transparency, we can limit the impact of personal bias upon the
process of interpretation by giving the words of the texts due respect.
When we pay this act of homage to the Nikayas, when we take seri-
ously their own account of the background to the Buddha's manifes-
tation in the world, we will see that they ascribe to his mission nothing
short of a cosmic scope. Against the background of a universe with no
conceivable bounds in time, a universe within which living beings
enveloped in the darkness of ignorance wander along bound to the
suffering of old age, sickness, and death, the Buddha arrives as the
torchbearer of humankind" (ukkadharo manussanam) bringing the light
°f wisdom.
1
In the words of Text 11,1, his arising in the world is "the
^manifestation °f great vision, of great light, of great radiance." Having
43
44 In the Buddha's Words
discovered for himself the perfect peace of liberation, he kindles for us
the light of knowledge, which reveals both the truths that we must see
for ourselves and the path of practice that culminates in this liberating
vision.
According to Buddhist tradition, the Buddha Gotama is not merely
one unique individual who puts in an unprecedented appearance on
the stage of human history and then bows out forever. He is, rather, the
fulfillment of a primordial archetype, the most recent member of a cos-
mic "dynasty" of Buddhas constituted by numberless Perfectly Enlight-
ened Ones of the past and sustained by Perfectly Enlightened Ones
continuing indefinitely onward into the future. Early Buddhism, even
in the archaic root texts of the Nikayas, already recognizes a plurality of
Buddhas who all conform to certain fixed patterns of behavior, the
broad outlines of which are described in the opening sections of the
Mahapadana Sutta (Digha Nikaya 14, not represented in the present
anthology). The word "Tathagata," which the texts use as an epithet for
a Buddha, points to this fulfillment of a primordial archetype. The word
means both "the one who has come thus" (tatha agata), that is, who has
come into our midst in the same way that the Buddhas of the past have
come; and "the one who has gone thus" (tatha gata), that is, who has
gone to the ultimate peace, Nibbana, in the same way that the Buddhas
of the past have gone.
Though the Nikayas stipulate that in any given world system, at any
given time, only one Perfectly Enlightened Buddha can arise, the aris-
ing of Buddhas is intrinsic to the cosmic process. Like a meteor against
the blackness of the night sky, from time to time a Buddha will appear
against the backdrop of boundless space and time, lighting up the spir-
itual firmament of the world, shedding the brilliance of his wisdom
upon those capable of seeing the truths that he illuminates. The being
who is to become a Buddha is called, in Pali, a bodhisatta, a word better
known in the Sanskrit form, bodhisattva. According to common
Buddhist tradition, a bodhisatta is one who undertakes a long course of
spiritual development consciously motivated by the aspiration to attain
future Buddhahood.
2
Inspired and sustained by great compassion for
living beings mired in the suffering of birth and death, a bodhisatta ful-
fills, over many eons of cosmic time, the difficult course needed to fully
master the requisites for supreme enlightenment. When all these requi-
sites are complete, he attains Buddhahood in order to establish the
The Bringer of Light 45
Dhamma in the world. A Buddha discovers the long-lost path to liber-
ation, the "ancient path" traveled by the Buddhas of the past that cul-
minates in the boundless freedom of Nibbana. Having found the path
and traveled it to its end, he then teaches it in all its fullness to human-
ity so that many others can enter the way to final liberation.
This, however, does not exhaust the function of a Buddha. A Buddha
understands and teaches not only the path leading to the supreme state
of ultimate liberation, the perfect bliss of Nibbana, but also the paths
leading to the various types of wholesome mundane happiness to
which human beings aspire. A Buddha proclaims both a path of mun-
dane enhancement that enables sentient beings to plant wholesome
roots productive of happiness, peace, and security in the worldly
dimensions of their lives, and a path of world-transcendence to guide
sentient beings to Nibbana. His role is thus much wider than an exclu-
sive focus on the transcendent aspects of his teaching might suggest.
He is not merely a mentor of ascetics and contemplatives, not merely
a teacher of meditation techniques and philosophical insights, but a
guide to the Dhamma in its full range and depth: one who reveals, pro-
claims, and establishes all the principles integral to correct understand-
ing and wholesome conduct, whether mundane or transcendental.
Text 11,1 highlights this wide-ranging altruistic dimension of a
Buddha's career when it praises the Buddha as the one person who
arises in the world "for the welfare of the multitude, for the happiness
of the multitude, out of compassion for the world, for the good, wel-
fare, and happiness of devas and humans."
The Nikayas offer two perspectives on the Buddha as a person, and
to do justice to the texts it is important to hold these two perspectives
in balance, without letting one cancel out the other. A correct view of
the Buddha can only arise from the merging of these two perspectives,
just as the correct view of an object can arise only when the perspec-
tives presented by our two eyes are merged in the brain into a single
image. One perspective, the one highlighted most often in modernist
presentations of Buddhism, shows the Buddha as a human being who,
like other human beings, had to struggle with the common frailties of
human nature to arrive at the state of an Enlightened One. After his
enlightenment at the age of thirty-five, he walked among us for forty-
five years as a wise and compassionate human teacher, sharing his
realization with others and ensuring that his teachings would remain
46 In the Buddha's Words
in the world long after his death. This is the side of the Buddha's nature
that figures most prominently in the Nikayas. Since it corresponds
closely with contemporary agnostic attitudes toward the ideals of reli-
gious faith, it has an immediate appeal to those nurtured by modern
modes of thought.
The other aspect of the Buddha's person is likely to seem strange to
us, but it looms large in Buddhist tradition and serves as the bedrock
for popular Buddhist devotion. Though secondary in the Nikayas, it
occasionally surfaces so conspicuously that it cannot be ignored,
despite the efforts of Buddhist modernists to downplay its significance
or rationalize its intrusions. From this perspective, the Buddha is seen
as one who had already made preparations for his supreme attainment
over countless past lives and was destined from birth to fulfill the mis-
sion of a world teacher. Text 11,2 is an example of how the Buddha is
viewed from this perspective. Here, it is said, the future Buddha
descends fully conscious from the Tusita heaven into his mother's
womb; his conception and birth are accompanied by wonders; deities
worship the newborn infant; and as soon as he is born he walks seven
steps and announces his future destiny. Obviously, for the compilers of
such a sutta as this, the Buddha was already destined to attain Buddha-
hood even prior to his conception and thus his struggle for enlighten-
ment was a battle whose outcome was already predetermined. The
final paragraph of the sutta, however, ironically hearkens back to the
realistic picture of the Buddha. What the Buddha himself considers to
be truly wondrous are not the miracles accompanying his conception
and birth, but his mindfulness and clear comprehension in the midst
of feelings, thoughts, and perceptions.
The three texts in section 3 are biographical accounts consistent with
this naturalistic point of view. They offer us a portrait of the Buddha
stark in its realism, bare in its naturalism, striking in its ability to con-
vey deep psychological insights with minimal descriptive technique.
In Text 11,3(1) we read about his renunciation, his training under two
famous meditation teachers, his disillusionment with their teachings,
his solitary struggle, and his triumphant realization of the Deathless.
Text 11,3(2) fills in the gaps of the above narrative with a detailed
account of the bodhisatta's practice of self-mortification, strangely
missing from the previous discourse. This text also gives us the clas-
sic description of the enlightenment experience as involving the
The Bringer of Light 47
attainment of the four jhanas, states of deep meditation, followed by
the three vijjas or higher types of knowledge: the knowledge of the
recollection of past lives, the knowledge of the passing away and
rebirth of beings, and the knowledge of the destruction of the taints.
While this text may convey the impression that the last knowledge
broke upon the Buddha's mind as a sudden and spontaneous intu-
ition, Text 11,3(3) corrects this impression with an account of the
Bodhisatta on the eve of his enlightenment reflecting deeply upon the
suffering of old age and death. He then methodically traces this suf-
fering back to its conditions by a process that involves, at each step,
"careful attention" (yoniso manasikara) leading to "a breakthrough by
wisdom" (pannaya abhisamaya). This process of investigation culmi-
nates in the discovery of dependent origination, which thereby
becomes the philosophical cornerstone of his teaching.
It is important to emphasize that, as presented here and elsewhere in
the Nikayas (see below, pp. 353-59), dependent origination does not
signify a joyous celebration of the interconnectedness of all things but
a precise articulation of the conditional pattern in dependence upon
which suffering arises and ceases. In the same text, the Buddha
declares that he discovered the path to enlightenment only when he
found the way to bring dependent origination to an end. It was thus
the realization of the cessation of dependent origination, and not merely
the discovery of its origination aspect, that precipitated the Buddha's
enlightenment. The simile of the ancient city, introduced later in the
discourse, illustrates the point that the Buddha's enlightenment was
not a unique event but the rediscovery of the same "ancient path" that
had been followed by the Buddhas of the past.
Text 11,4 resumes the narrative of Text 11,3(1), which I had divided by
splicing in the two alternative versions of the bodhisatta's quest for
the path to enlightenment. We now rejoin the Buddha immediately
after his enlightenment as he ponders the weighty question whether to
attempt to share his realization with the world. Just at this point, in
the midst of a text that has so far appeared so convincingly naturalis-
tic, a deity named Brahma Sahampati descends from the heavens to
plead with the Buddha to wander forth and teach the Dhamma for the
benefit of those "with little dust in their eyes." Should this scene be
interpreted literally or as a symbolic enactment of an internal drama
taking place in the Buddha's mind? It is hard to give a definitive
48 In the Buddha's Words
answer to this question; perhaps the scene could be understood as
occurring at both levels at once. In any event, Brahma's appearance at
this point marks a shift from the realism that colors the earlier part of
the sutta back toward the mythical-symbolic mode. The transition
again underscores the cosmic significance of the Buddha's enlighten-
ment and his future mission as a teacher.
Brahma's appeal eventually prevails and the Buddha agrees to teach.
He chooses as the first recipients of his teaching the five ascetics who
had attended on him during his years of ascetic practices. The narra-
tive culminates in a brief statement that the Buddha instructed them in
such a way that they all attained the deathless Nibbana for themselves.
However, it gives no indication of the specific teaching that the Buddha
imparted to them when he first met them after his enlightenment. That
teaching is the First Discourse itself, known as "The Setting in Motion
of the Wheel of the Dhamma."
This sutta is included here as Text 11,5. When the sutta opens, the
Buddha announces to the five ascetics that he has discovered "the mid-
dle way," which he identifies with the Noble Eightfold Path. In the
light of the preceding biographical account, we can understand why
the Buddha should begin his discourse in this way. The five ascetics
had initially refused to acknowledge the Buddha's claim to enlighten-
ment and spurned him as one who had betrayed the higher calling to
revert to a life of luxury. Thus he first had to assure them that, far from
reverting to a life of self-indulgence, he had discovered a new approach
to the timeless quest for enlightenment. This new approach, he told
them, remains faithful to the renunciation of sensual pleasures yet
eschews tormenting the body as pointless and unproductive. He then
explained to them the true path to liberation, the Noble Eightfold Path,
which avoids the two extremes and thereby gives rise to the light of
wisdom and culminates in the destruction of all bondage, Nibbana.
Once he has cleared up their misunderstanding, the Buddha then
proclaims the truths he had realized on the night of his enlightenment.
These are the Four Noble Truths. Not only does he enunciate each truth
and briefly define its meaning, but he describes each truth from three
perspectives. These constitute the three "turnings of the wheel of the
Dhamma" referred to later in the discourse. With respect to each truth,
the first turning is the wisdom that illuminates the particular nature of
that noble truth. The second turning is the understanding that each
The Bringer of Light 49
noble truth imposes a particular task to be accomplished. Thus the first
noble truth, the truth of suffering, is to be fully understood; the second
truth, the truth of suffering's origin or craving, is to be abandoned; the
third truth, the truth of the cessation of suffering, is to be realized; and
the fourth truth, the truth of the path, is to be developed. The third turn-
ing is the understanding that the four functions regarding the Four
Noble Truths have been completed: the truth of suffering has been fully
understood; craving has been abandoned; the cessation of suffering has
been realized; and the path has been fully developed. It was only when
he understood the Four Noble Truths in these three turnings and
twelve modes, he says, that he could claim that he had attained unsur-
passed perfect enlightenment.
The Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta illustrates once again the
blending of the two stylistic modes I referred to earlier. The discourse
proceeds almost entirely in the realistic-naturalistic mode until we
approach the end. When the Buddha completes his sermon, the cosmic
significance of the event is illuminated by a passage showing how the
deities in each successive celestial realm applaud the discourse and
shout the good news up to the deities in the next higher realm. At the
same time, the entire world system quakes and shakes, and a great
light surpassing the radiance of the gods appears in the world. Then,
at the very end, we return from this glorious scene back to the prosaic
human realm, to behold the Buddha briefly congratulating the ascetic
Kondanha for gaining "the dust-free, stainless vision of the Dhamma."
In one split-second, the Lamp of the Doctrine has passed from master
to disciple, to begin its journey throughout India and across the world.
II. THE BRINGER OF LIGHT
1. ONE PERSON
"Monks, there is one person who arises in the world for the welfare of
the multitude, for the happiness of the multitude, out of compassion
for the world, for the good, welfare, and happiness of devas and
humans. Who is that one person? It is the Tathagata, the Arahant, the
Perfectly Enlightened One. This is that one person.
"Monks, there is one person arising in the world who is unique,
without a peer, without counterpart, incomparable, unequalled, match-
less, unrivalled, the best of humans. Who is that one person? It is the
Tathagata, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One. This is that one
person.
"Monks, the manifestation of one person is the manifestation of great
vision, of great light, of great radiance; it is the manifestation of the six
things unsurpassed; the realization of the four analytical knowledges;
the penetration of the various elements, of the diversity of elements; it
is the realization of the fruit of knowledge and liberation; the realiza-
tion of the fruits of stream-entry, once-returning, nonreturning, and
arahantship.
3
Who is that one person? It is the Tathagata, the Arahant,
the Perfectly Enlightened One. This is that one person."
(ANl:xiii,l,5,6;I22-23)
2. THE BUDDHA'S CONCEPTION AND BIRTH
1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living at
Savatthi in Jeta's Grove, Anathapindika's Park.
2. Now a number of monks were sitting in the assembly hall, where
they had met together on returning from their almsround, after their
meal, when this discussion arose among them: "It is wonderful,
friends, it is marvelous, how mighty and powerful is the Tathagata!
For he is able to know about the Buddhas of the past—who attained
50
TheBringer of Light 51
final Nibbana, cut [the tangle of] proliferation, broke the cycle, ended
the round, and surmounted all suffering—that for those Blessed Ones
their birth was thus, their names were thus, their clans were thus, their
moral discipline was thus, their qualities [of concentration] were thus,
their wisdom was thus, their meditative dwellings were thus, their lib-
eration was thus."
When this was said, the Venerable Ananda told the monks: "Friends,
Tathagatas are wonderful and have wonderful qualities. Tathagatas
are marvelous and have marvelous qualities."
4
However, their discussion was interrupted; for the Blessed One rose
from meditation when it was evening, went to the assembly hall, and
sat down on a seat made ready. Then he addressed the monks thus:
"Monks, for what discussion are you sitting together here now? And
what was your discussion that was interrupted?"
"Here, venerable sir, we were sitting in the assembly hall, where we
had met together on returning from our almsround, after our meal,
when this discussion arose among us: Tt is wonderful, friends, it is
marvelous ... their liberation was thus.' When this was said, venerable
sir, the Venerable Ananda said to us: 'Friends, Tathagatas are wonder-
ful and have wonderful qualities. Tathagatas are marvelous and have
marvelous qualities.' This was our discussion, venerable sir, that was
interrupted when the Blessed One arrived."
Then the Blessed One addressed the Venerable Ananda: "That being
so, Ananda, explain more fully the Tathagata's wonderful and mar-
velous qualities."
3. "I heard and learned this, venerable sir, from the Blessed One's
own lips: 'Mindful and clearly comprehending, Ananda, the Bodhi-
satta appeared in the Tusita heaven.'
5
That mindful and clearly compre-
hending the Bodhisatta appeared in the Tusita heaven—this I
remember as a wonderful and marvelous quality of the Blessed One.
4. "I heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: 'Mind-
ful and clearly comprehending the Bodhisatta remained in the Tusita
heaven.' This too I remember as a wonderful and marvelous quality of
the Blessed One.
5- "I heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: 'For the
w
hole of his lifespan the Bodhisatta remained in the Tusita heaven.'
TVi*
s to
° I remember as a wonderful and marvelous quality of the
Blessed One.
52 In the Buddha's Words
6. "I heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: 'Mind-
ful and clearly comprehending the Bodhisatta passed away from the
Tusita heaven and descended into his mother's womb.' This too I
remember as a wonderful and marvelous quality of the Blessed One.
7. "I heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: 'When
the Bodhisatta passed away from the Tusita heaven and descended
into his mother's womb, an immeasurable great radiance surpassing
the divine majesty of the devas appeared in the world with its devas,
Mara, and Brahma, in this population with its ascetics and brahmins,
with its devas and human beings. And even in those abysmal world
intervals of vacancy, gloom, and utter darkness, where the moon and
the sun, mighty and powerful as they are, cannot make their light
prevail, there too an immeasurable great radiance surpassing the
divine majesty of the devas appeared.
6
And the beings reborn there
perceived each other by that light: "So indeed, there are also other
beings reborn here." And this ten-thousand-fold world system shook,
quaked, and trembled, and again an immeasurable great radiance
surpassing the divine majesty of the devas appeared in the world.'
This too I remember as a wonderful and marvelous quality of the
Blessed One.
8. "I heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: 'When
the Bodhisatta had descended into his mother's womb, four young
devas came to guard him at the four quarters so that no humans or
nonhumans or anyone at all could harm the Bodhisatta or his mother.'
7
This too I remember as a wonderful and marvelous quality of the
Blessed One.
9. "I heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: 'When
the Bodhisatta had descended into his mother's womb, she became
intrinsically virtuous, refraining from killing living beings, from taking
what is not given, from sexual misconduct, from false speech, and from
wines, liquors, and intoxicants, the basis of negligence.' This too I
remember as a wonderful and marvelous quality of the Blessed One....
14. "I heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: 'Other
women give birth after carrying the child in the womb for nine or ten
months, but not so the Bodhisatta's mother. The Bodhisatta's mother
gave birth to him after carrying him in her womb for exactly ten
months.' This too I remember as a wonderful and marvelous quality of
the Blessed One.
The Bringer of Light 53
15. "I heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips:
'Other women give birth seated or lying down, but not so the Bodhi-
satta's mother. The Bodhisatta's mother gave birth to him standing
up.' This too I remember as a wonderful and marvelous quality of the
Blessed One.
16. "I heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: 'When
the Bodhisatta came forth from his mother's womb, first devas
received him, then human beings.' This too I remember as a wonder-
ful and marvelous quality of the Blessed One.
17. "I heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: 'When
the Bodhisatta came forth from his mother's womb, he did not touch
the earth. The four young devas received him and set him before his
mother saying: "Rejoice, O queen, a son of great power has been born
to you.'" This too I remember as a wonderful and marvelous quality of
the Blessed One.
18. "I heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: 'When
the Bodhisatta came forth from his mother's womb, he came forth
unsullied, unsmeared by water, humors, blood, or any kind of impu-
rity, clean and unsullied. Suppose there were a gem placed on fine
cloth, then the gem would not smear the cloth or the cloth the gem.
Why is that? Because of the purity of both. So too when the Bodhisatta
came forth ... he came forth clean and unsullied.' This too I remember
as a wonderful and marvelous quality of the Blessed One.
19. "I heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: 'When
the Bodhisatta came forth from his mother's womb, two jets of water
appeared to pour from the sky, one cool and one warm, for bathing
the Bodhisatta and his mother.' This too I remember as a wonderful
and marvelous quality of the Blessed One.
20. "I heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: 'As
soon as the Bodhisatta was born, he stood firmly with his feet on the
ground; then he took seven steps facing north, and with a white para-
sol held over him, he surveyed each quarter and uttered the words of
the leader of the herd: "I am the highest in the world; I am the best in
the world; I am the foremost in the world. This is my last birth; now
there is no renewed existence for me.'"
8
This too I remember as a won-
derful and marvelous quality of the Blessed One.
21. "I
heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: 'When
^e Bodhisatta came forth from his mother's womb, an immeasurable
54 In the Buddha's Words
great radiance surpassing the divine majesty of the devas appeared in
the world with its devas, Mara, and Brahma, in this population with its
ascetics and brahmins, with its devas and human beings. And even in
those abysmal world intervals of vacancy, gloom, and utter darkness,
where the moon and the sun, mighty and powerful as they are, cannot
make their light prevail—there too an immeasurable great radiance
surpassing the divine majesty of the devas appeared in the world. And
the beings reborn there perceived each other by that light: "So indeed,
there are also other beings reborn here." And this ten-thousand-fold
world system shook, quaked, and trembled, and there too an immeas-
urable great radiance surpassing the divine majesty of the devas
appeared in the world/ That when the Bodhisatta came forth from his
mother's womb, an immeasurable great radiance surpassing the divine
majesty of the devas appeared in the world ... this too I remember as
a wonderful and marvelous quality of the Blessed One."
22. "That being so, Ananda, remember this too as a wonderful and
marvelous quality of the Tathagata: Here, Ananda, for the Tathagata
feelings are known as they arise, as they are present, as they disap-
pear; perceptions are known as they arise, as they are present, as they
disappear; thoughts are known as they arise, as they are present, as
they disappear.
9
Remember this too, Ananda, as a wonderful and mar-
velous quality of the Tathagata."
23. "Venerable sir, since for the Blessed One feelings are known as
they arise, as they are present, as they disappear; perceptions are known
as they arise, as they are present, as they disappear; thoughts are known
as they arise, as they are present, as they disappear—this too I remem-
ber as a wonderful and marvelous quality of the Blessed One."
That is what the Venerable Ananda said. The Teacher approved. The
monks were satisfied and delighted in the Venerable Ananda's words.
(MN 123: Acchariya-abbhuta Sutta, abridged; III 118-20; 122-24)
3. THE QUEST FOR ENLIGHTENMENT
(1) Seeking the Supreme State of Sublime Peace
5. "Monks, there are these two kinds of search: the noble search and
the ignoble search. And what is the ignoble search? Here someone
being himself subject to birth seeks what is also subject to birth; being
The Bringer of Light 55
himself subject to aging, he seeks what is also subject to aging; being
himself subject to sickness, he seeks what is also subject to sickness;
being himself subject to death, he seeks what is also subject to death;
being himself subject to sorrow, he seeks what is also subject to sorrow;
being himself subject to defilement, he seeks what is also subject to
defilement.
6-11. "And what may be said to be subject to birth, aging, sickness,
and death; to sorrow and defilement? Wife and children, men and
women slaves, goats and sheep, fowl and pigs, elephants, cattle,
horses, and mares, gold and silver: these acquisitions are subject to
birth, aging, sickness, and death; to sorrow and defilement; and one
who is tied to these things, infatuated with them, and utterly absorbed
in them, being himself subject to birth ... to sorrow and defilement,
seeks what it also subject to birth ... to sorrow and defilement.
10
12. "And what is the noble search? Here someone being himself sub-
ject to birth, having understood the danger in what is subject to birth,
seeks the unborn supreme security from bondage, Nibbana; being him-
self subject to aging, having understood the danger in what is subject
to aging, he seeks the unaging supreme security from bondage,
Nibbana; being himself subject to sickness, having understood the dan-
ger in what is subject to sickness, he seeks the unailing supreme secu-
rity from bondage, Nibbana; being himself subject to death, having
understood the danger in what is subject to death, he seeks the death-
less supreme security from bondage, Nibbana; being himself subject to
sorrow, having understood the danger in what is subject to sorrow, he
seeks the sorrowless supreme security from bondage, Nibbana; being
himself subject to defilement, having understood the danger in what
is subject to defilement, he seeks the undefiled supreme security from
bondage, Nibbana. This is the noble search.
13. "Monks, before my enlightenment, while I was still only an unen-
lightened bodhisatta, I too, being myself subject to birth, sought what
was also subject to birth; being myself subject to aging, sickness, death,
sorrow, and defilement, I sought what was also subject to aging, sick-
ness, death, sorrow, and defilement. Then I considered thus: 'Why,
being myself subject to birth, do I seek what is also subject to birth?
Why, being myself subject to aging, sickness, death, sorrow, and defile-
ment, do I seek what is also subject to aging, sickness, death, sorrow,
and defilement? Suppose that, being myself subject to birth, having
56 In the Buddha's Words
understood the danger in what is subject to birth, I seek the unborn
supreme security from bondage, Nibbana. Suppose that, being myself
subject to aging, sickness, death, sorrow, and defilement, having
understood the danger in what is subject to aging, sickness, death, sor-
row, and defilement, I seek the unaging, unailing, deathless, sorrow-
less, and undefiled supreme security from bondage, Nibbana.'
14. "Later, while still young, a black-haired young man endowed
with the blessing of youth, in the prime of life, though my mother and
father wished otherwise and wept with tearful faces, I shaved off my
hair and beard, put on the ochre robe, and went forth from the home
life into homelessness.
15. "Having gone forth, monks, in search of what is wholesome,
seeking the supreme state of sublime peace, I went to Alara Kalama
and said to him: 'Friend Kalama, I want to lead the spiritual life in this
Dhamma and Discipline.' Alara Kalama replied: 'The venerable one
may stay here. This Dhamma is such that a wise man can soon enter
upon and dwell in it, realizing for himself through direct knowledge
his own teacher's doctrine.' I soon quickly learned that Dhamma. As
far as mere lip-reciting and rehearsal of his teaching went, I could
speak with knowledge and assurance, and I claimed, T know and
see'—and there were others who did likewise.
"I considered: 'It is not through mere faith alone that Alara Kalama
declares: "By realizing it for myself with direct knowledge, I enter
upon and dwell in this Dhamma." Certainly Alara Kalama dwells
knowing and seeing this Dhamma.' Then I went to Alara Kalama and
asked him: 'Friend Kalama, in what way do you declare that by real-
izing it for yourself with direct knowledge you enter upon and dwell
in this Dhamma?' In reply he declared the base of nothingness.
11
"I considered: 'Not only Alara Kalama has faith, energy, mindful-
ness, concentration, and wisdom. I too have faith, energy, mindfulness,
concentration, and wisdom. Suppose I endeavor to realize the
Dhamma that Alara Kalama declares he enters upon and dwells in by
realizing it for himself with direct knowledge?'
"I soon quickly entered upon and dwelled in that Dhamma by real-
izing it for myself with direct knowledge. Then I went to Alara Kalama
and asked him: 'Friend Kalama, is it in this way that you declare that
you enter upon and dwell in this Dhamma by realizing it for yourself
with direct knowledge?'—'That is the way, friend.'—'It is in this way,
The Bringer of Light 57
friend, that I also enter upon and dwell in this Dhamma by realizing it
for myself with direct knowledge.'—'It is a gain for us, friend, it is a
great gain for us that we have such a venerable one for our fellow
monk. So the Dhamma that I declare I enter upon and dwell in by real-
izing it for myself with direct knowledge is the Dhamma that you enter
upon and dwell in by realizing it for yourself with direct knowledge.
And the Dhamma that you enter upon and dwell in by realizing it for
yourself with direct knowledge is the Dhamma that I declare I enter
upon and dwell in by realizing it for myself with direct knowledge. So
you know the Dhamma that I know and I know the Dhamma that you
know. As I am, so are you; as you are, so am I. Come, friend, let us now
lead this community together.'
"Thus Alara Kalama, my teacher, placed me, his pupil, on an equal
footing with himself and awarded me the highest honor. But it
occurred to me: 'This Dhamma does not lead to disenchantment, to
dispassion, to cessation, to peace, to direct knowledge, to enlighten-
ment, to Nibbana, but only to rebirth in the base of nothingness.'
12
Not
being satisfied with that Dhamma, disappointed with it, I left.
16. "Still in search, monks, of what is wholesome, seeking the
supreme state of sublime peace, I went to Uddaka Ramaputta and said
to him: 'Friend, I want to lead the spiritual life in this Dhamma and
Discipline.' Uddaka Ramaputta replied: 'The venerable one may stay
here. This Dhamma is such that a wise man can soon enter upon and
dwell in it, himself realizing through direct knowledge his own
teacher's doctrine.' I soon quickly learned that Dhamma. As far as
mere lip-reciting and rehearsal of his teaching went, I could speak with
knowledge and assurance, and I claimed, T know and see'—and there
were others who did likewise.
"I considered: 'It was not through mere faith alone that Rama
declared: "By realizing it for myself with direct knowledge, I enter
upon and dwell in this Dhamma." Certainly Rama dwelled knowing
and seeing this Dhamma.' Then I went to Uddaka Ramaputta and
asked him: 'Friend, in what way did Rama declare that by realizing it
for himself with direct knowledge he entered upon and dwelled in this
Dhamma?' In reply Uddaka Ramaputta declared the base of neither-
perception-nor-nonperception.
13
"I considered: 'Not only Rama had faith, energy, mindfulness, con-
centration, and wisdom. I too have faith, energy, mindfulness,
58 In the Buddha's Words
concentration, and wisdom. Suppose I endeavor to realize the
Dhamma that Rama declared he entered upon and dwelled in by real-
izing it for himself with direct knowledge.'
"I soon quickly entered upon and dwelled in that Dhamma by real-
izing it for myself with direct knowledge. Then I went to Uddaka
Ramaputta and asked him: 'Friend, was it in this way that Rama
declared that he entered upon and dwelled in this Dhamma by realiz-
ing it for himself with direct knowledge?'—'That is the way, friend.'
'It is in this way, friend, that I also enter upon and dwell in this
Dhamma by realizing it for myself with direct knowledge.'—'It is a
gain for us, friend, it is a great gain for us that we have such a venera-
ble one for our fellow monk. So the Dhamma that Rama declared he
entered upon and dwelled in by realizing it for himself with direct
knowledge is the Dhamma that you enter upon and dwell in by real-
izing it for yourself with direct knowledge. And the Dhamma that you
enter upon and dwell in by realizing it for yourself with direct knowl-
edge is the Dhamma that Rama declared he entered upon and dwelled
in by realizing it for himself with direct knowledge. So you know the
Dhamma that Rama knew and Rama knew the Dhamma that you
know. As Rama was, so are you; as you are, so was Rama. Come,
friend, now lead this community.'
"Thus Uddaka Ramaputta, my fellow monk, placed me in the posi-
tion of a teacher and accorded me the highest honor. But it occurred
to me: 'This Dhamma does not lead to disenchantment, to dispassion,
to cessation, to peace, to direct knowledge, to enlightenment, to
Nibbana, but only to rebirth in the base of neither-perception-nor-
nonperception.' Not being satisfied with that Dhamma, disappointed
with it, I left.
17. "Still in search, monks, of what is wholesome, seeking the
supreme state of sublime peace, I wandered by stages through the
Magadhan country until eventually I arrived at Uruvela near
Senanigama. There I saw an agreeable piece of ground, a delightful
grove with a clear-flowing river with pleasant, smooth banks and
nearby a village for alms resort. I considered: 'This is an agreeable piece
of ground, this is a delightful grove with a clear-flowing river with
pleasant, smooth banks and nearby a village for alms resort. This will
serve for the striving of a clansman intent on striving.' And I sat down
there thinking: 'This will serve for striving.'
14
The Bringer of Light 59
18. "Then, monks, being myself subject to birth, having understood
the danger in what is subject to birth, seeking the unborn supreme
security from bondage, Nibbana, I attained the unborn supreme secu-
rity from bondage, Nibbana; being myself subject to aging, having
understood the danger in what is subject to aging, seeking the unag-
ing supreme security from bondage, Nibbana, I attained the unaging
supreme security from bondage, Nibbana; being myself subject to sick-
ness, having understood the danger in what is subject to sickness, seek-
ing the unailing supreme security from bondage, Nibbana, I attained
the unailing supreme security from bondage, Nibbana; being myself
subject to death, having understood the danger in what is subject to
death, seeking the deathless supreme security from bondage, Nibbana,
I attained the deathless supreme security from bondage, Nibbana;
being myself subject to sorrow, having understood the danger in what
is subject to sorrow, seeking the sorrowless supreme security from
bondage, Nibbana, I attained the sorrowless supreme security from
bondage, Nibbana; being myself subject to defilement, having under-
stood the danger in what is subject to defilement, seeking the undefiled
supreme security from bondage, Nibbana, I attained the undefiled
supreme security from bondage, Nibbana. The knowledge and vision
arose in me: 'My liberation is unshakable. This is my last birth. Now
there is no more renewed existence.'"
(from MN 26: Ariyapariyesana Sutta; 1160-67)
(2) The Realization of the Three True Knowledges
11. [Saccaka asked the Blessed One:]
15
"Has there never arisen in Mas-
ter Gotama a feeling so pleasant that it could invade his mind and
remain? Has there never arisen in Master Gotama a feeling so painful
that it could invade his mind and remain?"
12. "Why not, Aggivessana? Here, Aggivessana, before my enlighten-
ment, while I was still only an unenlightened bodhisatta, I thought:
'Household life is crowded and dusty; life gone forth is wide open.
It is not easy, while living in a home, to lead the holy life utterly per-
fect and pure as a polished shell. Suppose I shave off my hair and
beard, put on the ochre robe, and go forth from the home life into
homelessness.'
to-16. "Later, while still young, a black-haired young man endowed with
60 In the Buddha's Words
the blessing of youth, in the prime of life ... [as in Text 11,3(1) §§14-17]
... And I sat down there thinking: This will serve for striving.'
17. "Now these three similes occurred to me spontaneously, never
heard before. Suppose there were a wet sappy piece of wood lying in
water, and a man came with an upper fire-stick, thinking: T shall light
a fire, I shall produce heat.' What do you think, Aggivessana? Could
the man light a fire and produce heat by taking the upper fire-stick
and rubbing it against the wet sappy piece of wood lying in the
water?"
"No, Master Gotama. Why not? Because it is a wet sappy piece of
wood, and it is lying in water. Eventually the man would reap only
weariness and disappointment."
"So too, Aggivessana, as to those ascetics and brahmins who still do
not live bodily withdrawn from sensual pleasures, and whose sensual
desire, affection, infatuation, thirst, and fever for sensual pleasures has
not been fully abandoned and suppressed internally, even if those
good ascetics and brahmins feel painful, racking, piercing feelings due
to exertion, they are incapable of knowledge and vision and supreme
enlightenment; and even if those good ascetics and brahmins do not
feel painful, racking, piercing feelings due to exertion, they are inca-
pable of knowledge and vision and supreme enlightenment. This was
the first simile that occurred to me spontaneously, never heard before.
18. "Again, Aggivessana, a second simile occurred to me sponta-
neously, never heard before. Suppose there were a wet sappy piece of
wood lying on dry land far from water, and a man came with an upper
fire-stick, thinking: T shall light a fire, I shall produce heat.' What do
you think, Aggivessana? Could the man light a fire and produce heat
by taking the upper fire-stick and rubbing it against the wet sappy
piece of wood lying on dry land far from water?"
"No, Master Gotama. Why not? Because it is a wet sappy piece of
wood, even though it is lying on dry land far from water. Eventually
the man would reap only weariness and disappointment."
"So too, Aggivessana, as to those ascetics and brahmins who live
bodily withdrawn from sensual pleasures, but whose sensual desire,
affection, infatuation, thirst, and fever for sensual pleasures has not
been fully abandoned and suppressed internally, even if those good
ascetics and brahmins feel painful, racking, piercing feelings due to
exertion, they are incapable of knowledge and vision and supreme
The Bringer of Light 61
enlightenment; and even if those good ascetics and brahmins do not
feel painful, racking, piercing feelings due to exertion, they are inca-
pable of knowledge and vision and supreme enlightenment. This was
the second simile that occurred to me spontaneously, never heard
before.
19. "Again, Aggivessana, a third simile occurred to me sponta-
neously, never heard before. Suppose there were a dry sapless piece of
wood lying on dry land far from water, and a man came with an upper
fire-stick, thinking: T shall light a fire, I shall produce heat.' What do
you think, Aggivessana? Could the man light a fire and produce heat
by rubbing it against the dry sapless piece of wood lying on dry land
far from water?"
"Yes, Master Gotama. Why so? Because it is a dry sapless piece of
wood, and it is lying on dry land far from water."
"So too, Aggivessana, as to those ascetics and brahmins who live
bodily withdrawn from sensual pleasures, and whose sensual desire,
affection, infatuation, thirst, and fever for sensual pleasures has been
fully abandoned and suppressed internally, even if those good ascetics
and brahmins feel painful, racking, piercing feelings due to exertion,
they are capable of knowledge and vision and supreme enlightenment;
and even if those good ascetics and brahmins do not feel painful, rack-
ing, piercing feelings due to exertion, they are capable of knowledge
and vision and supreme enlightenment.
16
This was the third simile that
occurred to me spontaneously, never heard before. These are the three
similes that occurred to me spontaneously, never heard before.
20. "I thought: 'Suppose, with my teeth clenched and my tongue
pressed against the roof of my mouth, I beat down, constrain, and
crush mind with mind.' So, with my teeth clenched and my tongue
pressed against the roof of my mouth, I beat down, constrained, and
crushed mind with mind. While I did so, sweat ran from my armpits.
Just as a strong man might seize a weaker man by the head or shoul-
ders and beat him down, constrain him, and crush him, so too, with my
teeth clenched and my tongue pressed against the roof of my mouth,
1
beat down, constrained, and crushed mind with mind, and sweat ran
from my armpits. But although tireless energy was aroused in me and
unremitting mindfulness was established, my body was overwrought
a
nd strained because I was exhausted by the painful striving. But such
Painful feeling that arose in me did not invade my mind and remain.
17
62 In the Buddha's Words
21. "I thought: 'Suppose I practice the breathless meditation.' So I
stopped the in-breaths and out-breaths through my mouth and nose.
While I did so, there was a loud sound of winds coming out from my
ear holes. Just as there is a loud sound when a smith's bellows are
blown, so too, while I stopped the in-breaths and out-breaths through
my nose and ears, there was a loud sound of winds coming out from
my ear holes. But although tireless energy was aroused in me and
unremitting mindfulness was established, my body was overwrought
and strained because I was exhausted by the painful striving. But such
painful feeling that arose in me did not invade my mind and remain.
22. "I thought: 'Suppose I practice further the breathless meditation.'
So I stopped the in-breaths and out-breaths through my mouth, nose,
and ears. While I did so, violent winds cut through my head. Just as if
a strong man were pressing against my head with the tip of a sharp
sword, so too, while I stopped the in-breaths and out-breaths through
my mouth, nose, and ears, violent winds cut through my head. But
although tireless energy was aroused in me and unremitting mindful-
ness was established, my body was overwrought and strained because
I was exhausted by the painful striving. But such painful feeling that
arose in me did not invade my mind and remain.
23. "I thought: 'Suppose I practice further the breathless meditation.'
So I stopped the in-breaths and out-breaths through my mouth, nose,
and ears. While I did so, there were violent pains in my head. Just as if
a strong man were tightening a tough leather strap around my head as
a headband, so too, while I stopped the in-breaths and out-breaths
through my mouth, nose, and ears, there were violent pains in my
head. But although tireless energy was aroused in me and unremitting
mindfulness was established, my body was overwrought and strained
because I was exhausted by the painful striving. But such painful feel-
ing that arose in me did not invade my mind and remain.
24. "I thought: 'Suppose I practice further the breathless meditation.'
So I stopped the in-breaths and out-breaths through my mouth, nose,
and ears. While I did so, violent winds carved up my belly. Just as if a
skilled butcher or his apprentice were to carve up an ox's belly with a
sharp butcher's knife, so too, while I stopped the in-breaths and out-
breaths through my mouth, nose, and ears, violent winds carved up
my belly. But although tireless energy was aroused in me and unremit-
ting mindfulness was established, my body was overwrought and
The Bringer of Light 63
strained because I was exhausted by the painful striving. But such
painful feeling that arose in me did not invade my mind and remain.
25. "I thought: 'Suppose I practice further the breathless meditation.'
So I stopped the in-breaths and out-breaths through my mouth, nose,
and ears. While I did so, there was a violent burning in my body. Just
as if two strong men were to seize a weaker man by both arms and
roast him over a pit of hot coals, so too, while I stopped the in-breaths
and out-breaths through my mouth, nose, and ears, there was a violent
burning in my body. But although tireless energy was aroused in me
and unremitting mindfulness was established, my body was over-
wrought and strained because I was exhausted by the painful striving.
But such painful feeling that arose in me did not invade my mind and
remain.
26. "Now when deities saw me, some said: 'The ascetic Gotama is
dead.' Other deities said: 'The ascetic Gotama is not dead, he is dying.'
And other deities said: 'The ascetic Gotama is neither dead nor dying;
he is an arahant, for such is the way arahants dwell.'
27. "I thought: 'Suppose I practice entirely cutting off food.' Then
deities came to me and said: 'Good sir, do not practice entirely cutting
off food. If you do so, we shall infuse heavenly food into the pores of
your skin and this will sustain you.' I considered: 'If I claim to be com-
pletely fasting while these deities infuse heavenly food into the pores
of my skin and this sustains me, then I shall be lying.' So I dismissed
those deities, saying: 'There is no need.'
28. "I thought: 'Suppose I take very little food, a handful each time,
whether of bean soup or lentil soup or vetch soup or pea soup.' So I
took very little food, a handful each time, whether of bean soup or
lentil soup or vetch soup or pea soup. While I did so, my body reached
a state of extreme emaciation. Because of eating so little my limbs
became like the jointed segments of vine stems or bamboo stems.
Because of eating so little my backside became like a camel's hoof.
Because of eating so little the projections on my spine stood forth like
corded beads. Because of eating so little my ribs jutted out as gaunt as
the crazy rafters of an old roofless barn. Because of eating so little the
gleam of my eyes sank far down in their sockets, looking like the gleam
of water that has sunk far down in a deep well. Because of eating so lit-
tle my scalp shriveled and withered as a green bitter gourd shrivels
and withers in the wind and sun. Because of eating so little my belly
64 In the Buddha's Words
skin adhered to my backbone; thus if I touched my belly skin I encoun-
tered my backbone and if I touched my backbone I encountered my
belly skin. Because of eating so little, if I defecated or urinated, I fell
over on my face there. Because of eating so little, if I tried to ease my
body by rubbing my limbs with my hands, the hair, rotted at its roots,
fell from my body as I rubbed.
29. "Now when people saw me, some said: The ascetic Gotama is
black.' Other people said: 'The ascetic Gotama is not black; he is
brown.' Other people said: 'The ascetic Gotama is neither black nor
brown; he is golden-skinned.' So much had the clear, bright color of my
skin deteriorated through eating so little.
30. "I thought: 'Whatever ascetics or brahmins in the past have expe-
rienced painful, racking, piercing feelings due to exertion, this is the
utmost; there is none beyond this. And whatever ascetics and brah-
mins in the future will experience painful, racking, piercing feelings
due to exertion, this is the utmost; there is none beyond this. And what-
ever ascetics and brahmins at present experience painful, racking,
piercing feelings due to exertion, this is the utmost; there is none
beyond this. But by this racking practice of austerities I have not
attained any superhuman distinction in knowledge and vision wor-
thy of the noble ones. Could there be another path to enlightenment?'
31. "I considered: T recall that when my father the Sakyan was occu-
pied, while I was sitting in the cool shade of a rose-apple tree, secluded
from sensual pleasures, secluded from unwholesome states, I entered
and dwelled in the first jhana, which is accompanied by thought and
examination, with rapture and happiness born of seclusion.
18
Could
this be the path to enlightenment?' Then, following on that memory,
came the realization: 'This is indeed the path to enlightenment.'
32. "I thought: 'Why am I afraid of that happiness that has nothing
to do with sensual pleasures and unwholesome states?' I thought: T am
not afraid of that happiness that has nothing to do with sensual pleas-
ures and unwholesome states.'
33. "I considered: 'It is not easy to attain that happiness with a body
so excessively emaciated. Suppose I ate some solid food—some boiled
rice and porridge.' And I ate some solid food—some boiled rice and
porridge. Now at that time five monks were waiting upon me, think-
ing: 'If our ascetic Gotama achieves some higher state, he will inform
us.' But when I ate the boiled rice and porridge, the five monks were
The Bringer of Light 65
disgusted and left me, thinking: 'The ascetic Gotama now lives luxu-
riously; he has given up his striving and reverted to luxury.'
34. "Now when I had eaten solid food and regained my strength,
then secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unwholesome
states, I entered and dwelled in the first jhana, which is accompanied
by thought and examination, with rapture and happiness born of
seclusion. But such pleasant feeling that arose in me did not invade
my mind and remain.
19
35. "With the subsiding of thought and examination, I entered and
dwelled in the second jhana, which has internal confidence and unifi-
cation of mind, is without thought and examination, and has rapture
and happiness born of concentration. But such pleasant feeling that
arose in me did not invade my mind and remain.
36. "With the fading away as well of rapture, I dwelled equanimous,
and mindful and clearly comprehending, I experienced happiness with
the body; I entered and dwelled in the third jhana of which the noble
ones declare: 'He is equanimous, mindful, one who dwells happily.'
But such pleasant feeling that arose in me did not invade my mind and
remain.
37. "With the abandoning of pleasure and pain, and with the previ-
ous passing away of joy and displeasure, I entered and dwelled in the
fourth jhana, which is neither painful nor pleasant and includes the
purification of mindfulness by equanimity. But such pleasant feeling
that arose in me did not invade my mind and remain.
38. "When my mind was thus concentrated, purified, bright,
unblemished, rid of imperfection, malleable, wieldy, steady, and
attained to imperturbability, I directed it to knowledge of the recollec-
tion of past lives. I recollected my manifold past lives, that is, one birth,
two births, three births, four births, five births, ten births, twenty births,
thirty births, forty births, fifty births, a hundred births, a thousand
births, a hundred thousand births, many eons of world-contraction,
many eons of world-expansion, many eons of world-contraction and
expansion: 'There I was so named, of such a clan, with such an appear-
ance, such was my nutriment, such my experience of pleasure and
pain, such my lifespan; and passing away from there, I was reborn
elsewhere; and there too I was so named, of such a clan, with such an
appearance, such was my nutriment, such my experience of pleasure
and pain, such my lifespan; and passing away from there, I was reborn
66 In the Buddha's Words
here.' Thus with their aspects and particulars I recollected my manifold
past lives.
39. "This was the first true knowledge attained by me in the first
watch of the night. Ignorance was banished and true knowledge arose,
darkness was banished and light arose, as happens in one who dwells
diligent, ardent, and resolute. But such pleasant feeling that arose in me
did not invade my mind and remain.
40. "When my mind was thus concentrated, purified, bright, unblem-
ished, rid of imperfection, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to
imperturbability, I directed it to knowledge of the passing away and
rebirth of beings. With the divine eye, which is purified and surpasses
the human, I saw beings passing away and being reborn, inferior and
superior, beautiful and ugly, fortunate and unfortunate, and I under-
stood how beings fare on according to their actions thus: 'These beings
who behaved wrongly by body, speech, and mind, who reviled the
noble ones, held wrong view, and undertook actions based on wrong
view, with the breakup of the body, after death, have been reborn in a
state of misery, in a bad destination, in the lower world, in hell; but
these beings who behaved well by body, speech, and mind, who did not
revile the noble ones, who held right view, and undertook action based
on right view, with the breakup of the body, after death, have been
reborn in a good destination, in a heavenly world.' Thus with the divine
eye, which is purified and surpasses the human, I saw beings passing
away and being reborn, inferior and superior, beautiful and ugly, fortu-
nate and unfortunate, and I understood how beings fare on according
to their actions.
41. "This was the second true knowledge attained by me in the mid-
dle watch of the night. Ignorance was banished and true knowledge
arose, darkness was banished and light arose, as happens in one who
dwells diligent, ardent, and resolute. But such pleasant feeling that
arose in me did not invade my mind and remain.
42. "When my mind was thus concentrated, purified, bright,
unblemished, rid of imperfection, malleable, wieldy, steady, and
attained to imperturbability, I directed it to knowledge of the destruc-
tion of the taints. I directly knew as it actually is: 'This is suffering.
This is the origin of suffering. This is the cessation of suffering. This
is the way leading to the cessation of suffering.' I directly knew as it
actually is: 'These are the taints. This is the origin of the taints. This is
The Bringer of Light 67
the cessation of the taints. This is the way leading to the cessation of the
taints.'
43. "When I knew and saw thus, my mind was liberated from the
taint of sensual desire, from the taint of existence, and from the taint of
ignorance. When it was liberated, there came the knowledge: 'It is lib-
erated.' I directly knew: 'Birth is destroyed, the spiritual life has been
lived, what had to be done has been done, there is no more coming
back to any state of being.'
44. "This was the third true knowledge attained by me in the last
watch of the night. Ignorance was banished and true knowledge arose,
darkness was banished and light arose, as happens in one who dwells
diligent, ardent, and resolute. But such pleasant feeling that arose in me
did not invade my mind and remain."
(from MN 36: Mahasaccaka Sutta; 1240-49)
(3) The Ancient City
"Monks, before my enlightenment, while I was still a bodhisatta, not
yet fully enlightened, it occurred to me: 'Alas, this world has fallen
into trouble, in that it is born, ages, and dies, it passes away and is
reborn, yet it does not understand the escape from this suffering
headed by aging-and-death. When now will an escape be discerned
from this suffering headed by aging-and-death?'
"Then, monks, it occurred to me: 'When what exists does aging-and-
death come to be? By what is aging-and-death conditioned?' Then,
monks, through careful attention, there took place in me a break-
through by wisdom: 'When there is birth, aging-and-death comes to
be; aging-and-death has birth as its condition.'
"Then, monks, it occurred to me: 'When what exists does birth
come to be?... existence?... clinging?... craving?... feeling?... con-
tact?.. . the six sense bases?... name-and-form? By what is name-and-
form conditioned?' Then, monks, through careful attention, there
took place in me a breakthrough by wisdom: 'When there is con-
sciousness, name-and-form comes to be; name-and-form has con-
sciousness as its condition.'
"Then, monks, it occurred to me: 'When what exists does conscious-
ness come to be? By what is consciousness conditioned?' Then, monks,
through careful attention, there took place in me a breakthrough by
68 In the Buddha's Words
wisdom: 'When there is name-and-form, consciousness comes to be;
consciousness has name-and-form as its condition.'
20
"Then, monks, it occurred to me: 'This consciousness turns back; it
does not go further than name-and-form. It is to this extent that one
may be born and age and die, pass away and be reborn, that is, when
there is consciousness with name-and-form as its condition, and name-
and-form with consciousness as its condition.
21
With name-and-form as
condition, the six sense bases; with the six sense bases as condition,
contact.... Such is the origin of this whole mass of suffering.'
"'Origination, origination'—thus, monks, in regard to things
unheard before there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom, penetra-
tion, and light.
"Then, monks, it occurred to me: 'When what does not exist does
aging-and-death not come to be? With the cessation of what does the
cessation of aging-and-death come about?' Then, monks, through care-
ful attention, there took place in me a breakthrough by wisdom: 'When
there is no birth, aging-and-death does not come to be; with the cessa-
tion of birth comes cessation of aging-and-death.'
"It occurred to me: 'When what does not exist does birth not come to
be?... existence?... clinging?... craving?... feeling?... contact?... the six
sense bases?... name-and-form? With the cessation of what does the
cessation of name-and-form come about?' Then, monks, through care-
ful attention, there took place in me a breakthrough by wisdom: 'When
there is no consciousness, name-and-form does not come to be; with
the cessation of consciousness comes cessation of name-and-form.'
"It occurred to me: 'When what does not exist does consciousness
not come to be? With the cessation of what does the cessation of con-
sciousness come about?' Then, monks, through careful attention, there
took place in me a breakthrough by wisdom: 'When there is no name-
and-form, consciousness does not come to be; with the cessation of
name-and-form comes cessation of consciousness.'
"Then, monks, it occurred to me: T have discovered this path to
enlightenment, that is, with the cessation of name-and-form comes ces-
sation of consciousness; with the cessation of consciousness comes ces-
sation of name-and-form; with the cessation of name-and-form,
cessation of the six sense bases; with the cessation of the six sense
bases, cessation of contact.... Such is the cessation of this whole mass
of suffering.'
22
The Bringer of Light 69
'"Cessation, cessation'—thus, monks, in regard to things unheard
before there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom, penetration,
and light.
"Suppose, monks, a man wandering through a forest would see an
ancient path, an ancient road traveled upon by people in the past. He
would follow it and would see an ancient city, an ancient capital that
had been inhabited by people in the past, with parks, groves, ponds,
and ramparts, a delightful place. Then the man would inform the king
or a royal minister: 'Sire, know that while wandering through the for-
est I saw an ancient path, an ancient road traveled upon by people in
the past. I followed it and saw an ancient city, an ancient capital that
had been inhabited by people in the past, with parks, groves, ponds,
and ramparts, a delightful place. Renovate that city, sire!' Then the king
or the royal minister would renovate the city, and some time later that
city would become successful and prosperous, well populated, filled
with people, attained to growth and expansion.
"So too, monks, I saw the ancient path, the ancient road traveled by
the Perfectly Enlightened Ones of the past. And what is that ancient
path, that ancient road? It is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right
view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right
effort, right mindfulness, right concentration. I followed that path and
by doing so I have directly known aging-and-death, its origin, its ces-
sation, and the way leading to its cessation. I have directly known birth
... existence ... clinging ... craving ... feeling ... contact... the six sense
bases ... name-and-form ... consciousness ... volitional formations,
their origin, their cessation, and the way leading to their cessation.
23
Having directly known them, I have explained them to the monks, the
nuns, the male lay followers, and the female lay followers. This spiri-
tual life, monks, has become successful and prosperous, extended, pop-
ular, widespread, well proclaimed among devas and humans."
(SN 12:65; II104-7)
4. THE DECISION TO TEACH
19. "I considered: 'This Dhamma that I have attained is profound,
hard to see and hard to understand, peaceful and sublime, unattain-
able by mere reasoning, subtle, to be experienced by the wise. But this
72 In the Buddha's Words
"Then the Brahma Sahampati thought: The Blessed One has con-
sented to my request that he teach the Dhamma.' And after paying
homage to me, keeping me on the right, he thereupon departed at once.
22. "I considered thus: 'To whom should I first teach the Dhamma?
Who will understand this Dhamma quickly?' It then occurred to me:
'Alara Kalama is wise, intelligent, and discerning; he has long had lit-
tle dust in his eyes. Suppose I taught the Dhamma first to Alara
Kalama. He will understand it quickly.' Then deities approached me
and said: 'Venerable sir, Alara Kalama died seven days ago.' And the
knowledge and vision arose in me: 'Alara Kalama died seven days
ago.' I thought: 'Alara Kalama's loss is a great one. If he had heard this
Dhamma, he would have understood it quickly'
23. "I considered thus: 'To whom should I first teach the Dhamma?
Who will understand this Dhamma quickly?' It then occurred to me:
'Uddaka Ramaputta is wise, intelligent, and discerning; he has long
had little dust in his eyes. Suppose I taught the Dhamma first to
Uddaka Ramaputta. He will understand it quickly.' Then deities
approached me and said: 'Venerable sir, Uddaka Ramaputta died last
night.' And the knowledge and vision arose in me: 'Uddaka Rama-
putta died last night.' I thought: 'Uddaka Ramaputta's loss is a great
one. If he had heard this Dhamma, he would have understood it
quickly'
24. "I considered thus: 'To whom should I first teach the Dhamma?
Who will understand this Dhamma quickly?' It then occurred to me:
'The monks of the group of five who attended upon me while I was
engaged in my striving were very helpful.
27
Suppose I taught the
Dhamma first to them.' Then I thought: 'Where are the monks of the
group of five now living?' And with the divine eye, which is purified
and surpasses the human, I saw that they were living at Baranasi in the
Deer Park at Isipatana.
25. "Then, monks, when I had stayed at Uruvela as long as I chose,
I set out to wander by stages to Baranasi. Between Gaya and the Bodhi,
the Ajivaka Upaka saw me on the road and said: 'Friend, your facul-
ties are clear, the color of your skin is pure and bright. Under whom
have you gone forth, friend? Who is your teacher? Whose Dhamma
do you profess?' I replied to the Ajivaka Upaka in stanzas:
The Bringer of Light 73
'I am one who has transcended all, a knower of all,
Unsullied among all things, renouncing all,
By craving's ceasing freed. Having known this all
For myself, to whom should I point as teacher?
T have no teacher, and one like me
Exists nowhere in all the world
With all its devas, because I have
No person for my counterpart.
'For I am the arahant in the world,
I am the teacher supreme.
I alone am a Perfectly Enlightened One
Whose fires are quenched and extinguished.
T go now to the city of Kasi
To set in motion the wheel of Dhamma.
In a world that has become blind
I go to beat the drum of the Deathless.'
'By your claims, friend, you ought to be the universal victor.'
28
'The victors are those like me
Who have won the destruction of taints.
I have vanquished all evil states,
Therefore, Upaka, I am a victor.'
"When this was said, the Ajivaka Upaka said: 'May it be so, friend.'
Shaking his head, he took a bypath and departed.
26. "Then, monks, wandering by stages, I eventually came to Bara-
nasi, to the Deer Park at Isipatana, and I approached the monks of the
group of five. The monks saw me coming in the distance, and they
a
greed among themselves thus: 'Friends, here comes the ascetic
Gotama who lives luxuriously, who gave up his striving and reverted
to luxury. We should not pay homage to him or rise up for him or
receive his bowl and outer robe. But a seat may be prepared for him.
he likes, he may sit down.' However, as I approached, those monks
round themselves unable to keep their pact. One came to meet me and
74 In the Buddha's Words
took my bowl and outer robe, another prepared a seat, and another set
out water for my feet; however, they addressed me by name and as
'friend.'
29
27. "Thereupon I told them: 'Monks, do not address the Tathagata by
name and as "friend." The Tathagata is an Arahant, a Perfectly Enlight-
ened One. Listen, monks, the Deathless has been attained. I shall
instruct you, I shall teach you the Dhamma. Practicing as you are
instructed, by realizing it for yourselves here and now through direct
knowledge you will soon enter and dwell in that supreme goal of the
holy life for the sake of which clansmen rightly go forth from the home
life into homelessness.'
"When this was said, the monks of the group of five answered me
thus: 'Friend Gotama, by the conduct, the practice, and the perform-
ance of austerities that you undertook, you did not achieve any super-
human distinction in knowledge and vision worthy of the noble ones.
Since you now live luxuriously, having given up your striving and
reverted to luxury, how could you have achieved any superhuman dis-
tinction in knowledge and vision worthy of the noble ones?' When this
was said, I told them: 'The Tathagata does not live luxuriously, nor has
he given up his striving and reverted to luxury. The Tathagata is an
Arahant, a Perfectly Enlightened One. Listen, monks, the Deathless
has been attained ... from the home life into homelessness.'
"A second time the monks of the group of five said to me: 'Friend
Gotama ... how could you have achieved any superhuman distinc-
tion in knowledge and vision worthy of the noble ones?' A second
time I told them: 'The Tathagata does not live luxuriously ... from
the home life into homelessness.' A third time the monks of the group
of five said to me: 'Friend Gotama ... how could you have achieved
any superhuman distinction in knowledge and vision worthy of the
noble ones?'
28. "When this was said I asked them: 'Monks, have you ever known
me to speak like this before?'—'No, venerable sir.'
30
—'Monks, the
Tathagata is an Arahant, a Perfectly Enlightened One. Listen, monks,
the Deathless has been attained. I shall instruct you, I shall teach you
the Dhamma. Practicing as you are instructed, by realizing it for your-
selves here and now through direct knowledge, you will soon enter
and dwell in that supreme goal of the holy life for the sake of which
clansmen rightly go forth from the home life into homelessness.'
The Bringer of Light 75
29. "I was able to convince the monks of the group of five.
31
Then I
sometimes instructed two monks while the other three went for alms,
and the six of us lived on what those three monks brought back from
their almsround. Sometimes I instructed three monks while the other
two went for alms, and the six of us lived on what those two monks
brought back from their almsround.
30. "Then the monks of the group of five, thus taught and
instructed by me, being themselves subject to birth, having under-
stood the danger in what is subject to birth, seeking the unborn
supreme security from bondage, Nibbana, attained the unborn
supreme security from bondage, Nibbana; being themselves subject to
aging, sickness, death, sorrow, and defilement, having understood
the danger in what is subject to aging, sickness, death, sorrow, and
defilement, seeking the unaging, unailing, deathless, sorrowless, and
undefiled supreme security from bondage, Nibbana, they attained
the unaging, unailing, deathless, sorrowless, and undefiled supreme
security from bondage, Nibbana. The knowledge and vision arose in
them: 'Our liberation is unshakable; this is our last birth; now there is
no more renewed existence.'"
(from MN 26: Ariyapariyesana Sutta; 1167-73)
5. THE FIRST DISCOURSE
Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at
Baranasi in the Deer Park at Isipatana. There the Blessed One
addressed the monks of the group of five thus:
"Monks, these two extremes should not be followed by one who has
gone forth into homelessness. What two? The pursuit of sensual hap-
piness in sensual pleasures, which is low, vulgar, the way of
worldlings, ignoble, unbeneficial; and the pursuit of self-mortification,
which is painful, ignoble, unbeneficial. Without veering toward either
of these extremes, the Tathagata has awakened to the middle way,
which gives rise to vision, which gives rise to knowledge, and leads to
peace, to direct knowledge, to enlightenment, to Nibbana.
"And what, monks, is that middle way awakened to by the Tatha-
gata? It is this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view, right inten-
tion, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right
76 In the Buddha's Words
mindfulness, right concentration. This, monks, is that middle way
awakened to by the Tathagata, which gives rise to vision, which gives
rise to knowledge, and leads to peace, to direct knowledge, to enlight-
enment, to Nibbana.
"Now this, monks, is the noble truth of suffering: birth is suffering,
aging is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering; union with
what is displeasing is suffering; separation from what is pleasing is
suffering; not to get what one wants is suffering; in brief, the five aggre-
gates subject to clinging are suffering.
"Now this, monks, is the noble truth of the origin of suffering: it is
this craving that leads to renewed existence, accompanied by delight
and lust, seeking delight here and there; that is, craving for sensual
pleasures, craving for existence, craving for extermination.
"Now this, monks, is the noble truth of the cessation of suffering: it
is the remainderless fading away and cessation of that same craving,
the giving up and relinquishing of it, freedom from it, nonattachment.
"Now this, monks, is the noble truth of the way leading to the ces-
sation of suffering: it is this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ...
right concentration.
"'This is the noble truth of suffering': thus, monks, in regard to
things unheard before, there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom,
penetration, and light.
32
"'This noble truth of suffering is to be fully understood': thus,
monks, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me vision,
knowledge, wisdom, penetration, and light.
33
"'This noble truth of suffering has been fully understood': thus,
monks, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me vision,
knowledge, wisdom, penetration, and light.
34
"This is the noble truth of the origin of suffering': thus, monks, in
regard to things unheard before, there arose in me vision, knowledge,
wisdom, penetration, and light.
'"This noble truth of the origin of suffering is to be abandoned': thus,
monks, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me vision,
knowledge, wisdom, penetration, and light.
"This noble truth of the origin of suffering has been abandoned':
thus, monks, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me
vision, knowledge, wisdom, penetration, and light.
"This is the noble truth of the cessation of suffering': thus, monks,
The Bringer of high t 77
in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me vision, knowl-
edge, wisdom, penetration, and light.
"This noble truth of the cessation of suffering is to be realized': thus,
monks, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me vision,
knowledge, wisdom, penetration, and light.
"This noble truth of the cessation of suffering has been realized':
thus, monks, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me
vision, knowledge, wisdom, penetration, and light.
"This is the noble truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffer-
ing': thus, monks, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in
me vision, knowledge, wisdom, penetration, and light.
"This noble truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering is
to be developed': thus, monks, in regard to things unheard before,
there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom, penetration, and light.
"This noble truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering
has been developed': thus, monks, in regard to things unheard before,
there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom, penetration, and light.
"So long, monks, as my knowledge and vision of these Four Noble
Truths as they really are in their three phases and twelve aspects was
not thoroughly purified in this way,
35
1 did not claim to have awak-
ened to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment in this world with its
devas, Mara, and Brahma, in this population with its ascetics and brah-
mins, its devas and humans. But when my knowledge and vision of
these Four Noble Truths as they really are in their three phases and
twelve aspects was thoroughly purified in this way, then I claimed to
have awakened to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment in this world
with its devas, Mara, and Brahma, in this population with its ascetics
and brahmins, its devas and humans. The knowledge and vision arose
in me: 'Unshakable is the liberation of my mind. This is my last birth.
Now there is no more renewed existence.'"
This is what the Blessed One said. Elated, the monks of the group of
five delighted in the Blessed One's statement. And while this discourse
Was being spoken, there arose in the Venerable Kondanna the dust-
free, stainless vision of the Dhamma: "Whatever is subject to origina-
tion is all subject to cessation."
36
And when the wheel of the Dhamma had been set in motion by the
Blessed One, the earth-dwelling devas raised a cry: "At Baranasi, in
the Deer Park at Isipatana, this unsurpassed wheel of the Dhamma has
78 In the Buddha's Words
been set in motion by the Blessed One, which cannot be stopped by any
ascetic or brahmin or deva or Mara or Brahma or by anyone in the
world." Having heard the cry of the earth-dwelling devas, the devas of
the realm of the Four Great Kings raised a cry: "At Baranasi ... this
unsurpassed wheel of the Dhamma has been set in motion by the
Blessed One, which cannot be stopped ... by anyone in the world."
Having heard the cry of the devas of the realm of the Four Great Kings,
the Tavatimsa devas ... the Yama devas ... the Tusita devas ... the
devas who delight in creating ... the devas who wield power over oth-
ers' creations ... the devas of Brahma's company
37
raised a cry: "At
Baranasi, in the Deer Park at Isipatana, this unsurpassed wheel of the
Dhamma has been set in motion by the Blessed One, which cannot be
stopped by any ascetic or brahmin or deva or Mara or Brahma or by
anyone in the world."
Thus at that moment, at that instant, at that second, the cry spread
as far as the brahma world, and this ten-thousand-fold world system
shook, quaked, and trembled, and an immeasurable great radiance
surpassing the divine majesty of the devas appeared in the world.
Then the Blessed One uttered this inspired utterance: "Kondahna
has indeed understood! Kondanna has indeed understood!" In this
way the Venerable Kondanna acquired the name "Anna Kondahna
Kondanna Who Has Understood."
(SN 56:11: Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta; V 420-24)
r
III. Approaching the Dhamma
. tkf
....
: : I
'ifi'
INTRODUCTION
One of the most distressing predicaments any earnest, open-minded
spiritual seeker might face is the sheer difficulty of choosing from
among the bewildering diversity of religious and spiritual teachings
available. By their very nature, spiritual teachings make claims upon
our allegiance that are absolute and all-encompassing. Adherents of a
particular creed are prone to assert that their religion alone reveals the
final truth about our place in the universe and our ultimate destiny;
they boldly propose that their path alone offers the sure means to eter-
nal salvation. If we could suspend all belief commitments and com-
pare the competing doctrines impartially, submitting them to empirical
tests, we would have a sure-fire method of deciding between them,
and then our ordeal would be over. But it isn't that simple. Rival reli-
gions all propose—or presuppose—doctrines that we cannot directly
validate by personal experience; they advocate tenets that call for some
degree of trust. So, as their tenets and practices clash, we run up
against the problem of finding some way to decide between them and
negotiate their competing claims to truth.
One solution to this problem is to deny that there is any real conflict
between alternative belief systems. The adherents of this approach,
which we might call religious universalism, say that at their core all
spiritual traditions teach essentially the same thing. Their formulations
may differ but their inner core is the same, expressed differently merely
to accord with different sensibilities. What we need to do, the univer-
salist says, when faced with different spiritual traditions, is to extract
the kernel of inner truth from the pods of their exoteric creeds. From
ground level our goals look different, but from the heights we will find
the goal is the same; it is like the view of the moon from different
mountain peaks. Universalists in matters of doctrine often endorse
eclecticism in practice, holding that we can select whatever practices
we prefer and combine them like dishes at a buffet.
This solution to the problem of religious diversity has an immediate
appeal to those disillusioned with the exclusive claims of dogmatic
81
82 In the Buddha's Words
religion. Honest critical reflection, however, would show that on the
most vital issues the different religions and spiritual traditions take
different standpoints. They give us very different answers to our ques-
tions concerning the basic grounds and goals of the spiritual quest and
often these differences are not merely verbal. To sweep them away as
being merely verbal may be an effective way of achieving harmony
between followers of different belief systems, but it cannot withstand
close examination. In the end, it is as little tenable as saying that,
because they have beaks and wings, eagles, sparrows, and chickens
are essentially the same type of creature, the differences between them
being merely verbal.
It is not only theistic religions that teach doctrines beyond the range
of immediate empirical confirmation. The Buddha too taught doctrines
that an ordinary person cannot directly confirm by everyday experi-
ence, and these doctrines are fundamental to the structure of his teach-
ing. We saw, for example, in the introductions to chapters I and II, that
the Nikayas envisage a universe with many domains of sentient exis-
tence spread out in boundless space and time, a universe in which sen-
tient beings roam and wander from life to life on account of their
ignorance, craving, and kamma. The Nikayas presuppose that
throughout beginningless time, Buddhas without number have arisen
and turned the wheel of the Dhamma, and that each Buddha attains
enlightenment after cultivating spiritual perfections over long periods
of cosmic time. When we approach the Dhamma we are likely to resist
such beliefs and feel that they make excessive demands on our capac-
ity for trust. Thus we inevitably run up against the question whether,
if we wish to follow the Buddha's teaching, we must take on board the
entire package of classical Buddhist doctrine.
For Early Buddhism, all the problems we face in deciding how far
we should go in placing faith can be disposed of at a single stroke.
That single stroke involves reverting to direct experience as the ulti-
mate basis for judgment. One of the distinctive features of the
Buddha's teaching is the respect it accords to direct experience. The
texts of Early Buddhism do not teach a secret doctrine, nor do they
leave scope for anything like an esoteric path reserved for an elite of
initiates and withheld from others. According to Text 111,1, secrecy in
a religious teaching is the hallmark of wrong views and confused
thinking. The teaching of the Buddha shines openly, as radiant and
Approaching the Dhamma 83
brilliant as the light of the sun and moon. Freedom from the cloak of
secrecy is integral to a teaching that gives primacy to direct experi-
ence, inviting each individual to test its principles in the crucible of his
or her own experience.
This does not mean that an ordinary person can fully validate the
Buddha's doctrine by direct experience without special effort. To the
contrary, the teaching can only be fully realized through the achieve-
ment of certain extraordinary types of experience that are far beyond
the range of the ordinary person enmeshed in the concerns of mun-
dane life. However, in sharp contrast to revealed religion, the Buddha
does not demand that we begin our spiritual quest by placing faith in
doctrines that lie beyond the range of our immediate experience.
Rather than ask us to wrestle with issues that, for us in our present con-
dition, no amount of experience can decide, he instead asks us to con-
sider a few simple questions pertaining to our immediate welfare and
happiness, questions that we can answer on the basis of personal expe-
rience. I highlight the expression "for us in our present condition,"
because the fact that we cannot presently validate such matters does
not constitute grounds for rejecting them as invalid or even as irrele-
vant. It only means that we should put them aside for the time being
and concern ourselves with issues that come within the range of direct
experience.
The Buddha says that his teaching is about suffering and the cessa-
tion of suffering. This statement does not mean that the Dhamma is
concerned only with our experience of suffering in the present life, but
it does imply that we can use our present experience, backed by intel-
ligent observation, as a criterion for determining what is beneficial and
what detrimental to our spiritual progress. Our most insistent existen-
tial demand, springing up deep within us, is the need for freedom from
harm, sorrow, and distress; or, positively stated, the need to achieve
well-being and happiness. However, to avoid harm and to secure our
well-being, it is not sufficient for us merely to hope. We first have to
understand the conditions on which they depend. According to the
B
uddha, whatever arises, arises through appropriate causes and con-
ditions, and this applies with equal force to suffering and happiness.
n
us we must ascertain the causes and conditions that lead to harm
an
d suffering, and likewise the causes and conditions that lead to well-
eir
ig and happiness. Once we have extracted these two principles
86 In the Buddha's Words
certain practices—practices that require highly refined skills and
determined effort—we would be able to acquire the faculties needed
to validate those other aspects, such as the law of kamma, the reality
of rebirth, and the existence of supersensible realms (see Text VII,4
§§23-24 and Text VII,5 §§19-20).
Another major problem that often besets spiritual seekers is the
demands that teachers place upon their capacity for trust. This prob-
lem has become especially acute in our own time, when the news
media gleefully spotlight the frailties of numberless gurus and jump at
the chance to show up any modern-day saint as nothing better than a
swindler in robes. But the problem of rogue gurus is a perennial one by
no means peculiar to our age. Whenever one person exercises spiri-
tual authority over others, it is only too easy for that person to be
tempted to exploit the trust others place in him in ways that can be
seriously detrimental to himself and his disciples. When a pupil
approaches a teacher who claims to be perfectly enlightened and thus
capable of teaching the path to final liberation, the pupil must have
some criteria at hand for testing the teacher to determine whether the
teacher truly measures up to the lofty claims he makes about himself—
or that others make about him.
In the Vimamsaka Sutta—Text 111,4—the Buddha lays down guide-
lines by which a monk can test "the Tathagata," that is, the Buddha, to
evaluate his claim to be perfectly enlightened. One benchmark of per-
fect enlightenment is freedom of the mind from all defilements. If a
monk cannot directly see into the Buddha's own mind, he can never-
theless rely on indirect evidence to ascertain that the Buddha is freed
from defilements; that is, by evaluating the Buddha's bodily deeds and
speech he can infer that the Buddha's mental states are exclusively
pure, uninfluenced by greed, hatred, and delusion. In addition to such
observational inference, the Buddha further encourages the monk to
approach him and directly inquire about his mental states.
Once the pupil gains confidence that the Buddha is a qualified
teacher, he then puts the Master to the ultimate test. He learns his
teaching, enters upon the practice, and penetrates the Dhamma by
direct knowledge. This act of penetration—here equivalent at mini-
mum to the attainment of stream-entry—brings the gain of "invincible
faith," the faith of one who is established upon the irreversible path
leading to final release.
Approaching the Dhamma 87
Taken in isolation, the Vimamsaka Sutta might give the impression
that one acquires faith only after gaining realization of the teaching,
and since realization is self-validating, faith would then become redun-
dant. This impression, however, would be one-sided. The point the
sutta is making is that faith becomes invincible as a result of realiza-
tion, not that faith first enters the spiritual path only when one attains
realization. Faith is the first of the five spiritual faculties, and in some
degree, as trusting confidence in the Buddha's enlightenment and in
the main principles of his teaching, it is a prerequisite for the higher
training. We see faith functioning in this preparatory role in Text 111,5,
a long excerpt from the Cahki Sutta. Here, the Buddha explains that a
person who has faith in something "preserves truth" when he says
"this is my faith." He "preserves truth" because he merely states what
he believes without jumping to the conclusion that what he believes is
definitely true and anything else contrary to it false. The Buddha con-
trasts the "preservation of truth" (saccanurakkhana) with the "discovery
of truth" {saccanubodha), which begins by placing faith in a teacher who
has proved himself worthy of trust. Having gained faith in such a
teacher, one then approaches him for instruction, learns the Dhamma,
practices it (according to a series of steps more finely calibrated than in
the preceding text), and finally sees the supreme truth for oneself.
This does not yet mark the end of the road for the disciple, but only
the initial breakthrough to the truth, again corresponding to the attain-
ment of stream-entry. Having achieved the vision of truth, to reach the
"final arrival at truth" (saccanupatti)—that is, the attainment of ara-
hantship or final liberation—one must repeat, develop, and cultivate
the same series of steps until one has fully absorbed and assimilated
the supreme truth disclosed by that initial vision. Thus the entire
process of training in the Dhamma is rooted in personal experience.
Even faith should be rooted in investigation and inquiry and not based
solely upon emotional leanings and blind belief. Faith alone is insuffi-
cient but is the door to deeper levels of experience. Faith serves as a
s
pur to practice; practice leads to experiential understanding; and
when one's understanding matures, it blossoms in full realization.
III. APPROACHING THE DHAMMA
1. NOT A SECRET DOCTRINE
"These three things, monks, are conducted in secret, not openly.
What three? Affairs with women, the mantras of the brahmins, and
wrong view.
"But these three things, monks, shine openly, not in secret. What
three? The moon, the sun, and the Dhamma and Discipline proclaimed
by the Tathagata."
(AN 3:129; 1282-83)
2. No DOGMAS OR BLIND BELIEF
Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was wandering on
tour together with a large Sahgha of monks when he arrived at a town
of the Kalamas named Kesaputta.
2
Now the Kalamas of Kesaputta
heard: "It is said that the ascetic Gotama, the Sakyan son who went
forth from a Sakyan family, has arrived at Kesaputta. Now a good
report about that master Gotama has been circulating thus: 'That
Blessed One is an arahant, perfectly enlightened, accomplished in true
knowledge and conduct, fortunate, knower of the world, unsurpassed
leader of persons to be tamed, teacher of devas and humans, the
Enlightened One, the Blessed One. Having realized with his own direct
knowledge this world with its devas, Mara, and Brahma, this popula-
tion with its ascetics and brahmins, with its devas and humans, he
makes it known to others. He teaches a Dhamma that is good in the
beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end, with the right
meaning and expression; he reveals a spiritual life that is perfectly com-
plete and purified.' Now it is good to see such arahants."
3
Then the Kalamas of Kesaputta approached the Blessed One. Some
paid homage to him and sat down to one side; some exchanged greet-
ings with him and, after their greetings and cordial talk, sat down to
88
Approaching the Dhamma 89
one side; some saluted him reverentially and sat down to one side;
some remained silent and sat down to one side. Then the Kalamas said
to the Blessed One:
"Venerable sir, some ascetics and brahmins who come to Kesaputta
explain and elucidate their own doctrines, but disparage, debunk, revile,
and vilify the doctrines of others. But then some other ascetics and brah-
mins come to Kesaputta, and they too explain and elucidate their own
doctrines, but disparage, debunk, revile, and vilify the doctrines of the
others. For us, venerable sir, there is perplexity and doubt as to which
of these good ascetics speak truth and which speak falsehood."
"It is fitting for you to be perplexed, O Kalamas, it is fitting for you to
be in doubt. Doubt has arisen in you about a perplexing matter. Come,
Kalamas. Do not go by oral tradition, by lineage of teaching, by hearsay,
by a collection of texts, by logic, by inferential reasoning, by reasoned
cogitation, by the acceptance of a view after pondering it, by the seem-
ing competence of a speaker, or because you think, 'The ascetic is our
teacher.'
4
But when you know for yourselves, 'These things are unwhole-
some; these things are blamable; these things are censured by the wise;
these things, if undertaken and practiced, lead to harm and suffering,'
then you should abandon them.
"What do you think, Kalamas? When greed, hatred, and delusion
arise in a person, is it for his welfare or harm?"
5
~"For his harm, vener-
able sir."—"Kalamas, a person who is greedy, hating, and deluded,
overpowered by greed, hatred, and delusion, his thoughts controlled
by them, will destroy life, take what is not given, engage in sexual mis-
conduct, and tell lies; he will also prompt others to do likewise. Will
that conduce to his harm and suffering for a long time?"—"Yes, ven-
erable sir."
"What do you think, Kalamas? Are these things wholesome or
unwholesome?—"Unwholesome, venerable sir."—"Blamable or
blameless?"—"Blamable, venerable sir."—"Censured or praised by the
wise?"—"Censured, venerable sir."—"Undertaken and practiced, do
they lead to harm and suffering or not, or how is it in this case?"
'Undertaken and practiced, these things lead to harm and suffering. So
« appears to us in this case."
"It was for this reason, Kalamas, that we said: Do not go by oral tra-
dition....
"Come, Kalamas. Do not go by oral tradition, by lineage of teaching,
90 In the Buddha's Words
by hearsay, by a collection of texts, by logic, by inferential reasoning, by
reasoned cogitation, by the acceptance of a view after pondering it, by
the seeming competence of a speaker, or because you think, 'The asce-
tic is our teacher.' But when you know for yourselves, 'These things are
wholesome; these things are blameless; these things are praised by the
wise; these things, if undertaken and practiced, lead to welfare and
happiness/ then you should engage in them.
"What do you think, Kalamas? When nongreed, nonhatred, and
nondelusion arise in a person, is it for his welfare or harm?"—"For his
welfare, venerable sir."—"Kalamas, a person who is without greed,
without hatred, without delusion, not overpowered by greed, hatred,
and delusion, his thoughts not controlled by them, will abstain from
the destruction of life, from taking what is not given, from sexual mis-
conduct, and from false speech; he will also prompt others to do like-
wise. Will that conduce to his welfare and happiness for a long
time?"—"Yes, venerable sir."
"What do you think, Kalamas? Are these things wholesome or
unwholesome?—"Wholesome, venerable sir."—"Blamable or blame-
less?"—"Blameless, venerable sir."—"Censured or praised by the
wise?"—"Praised, venerable sir."—"Undertaken and practiced, do
they lead to welfare and happiness or not, or how is it in this case?"
"Undertaken and practiced, these things lead to welfare and happi-
ness. So it appears to us in this case."
"It was for this reason, Kalamas, that we said: Do not go upon oral
tradition....
"Then, Kalamas, that noble disciple—devoid of covetousness,
devoid of ill will, unconfused, clearly comprehending, ever mindful
dwells pervading one quarter with a mind imbued with loving-
kindness, likewise the second quarter, the third, and the fourth.
6
Thus
above, below, across, and everywhere, and to all as to himself, he dwells
pervading the entire world with a mind imbued with loving-kindness,
vast, exalted, measureless, without hostility and without ill will.
"He dwells pervading one quarter with a mind imbued with com-
passion ... with altruistic joy ... with equanimity, likewise the second
quarter, the third, and the fourth. Thus above, below, across, and every-
where, and to all as to himself, he dwells pervading the entire world
with a mind imbued with equanimity, vast, exalted, measureless, with-
out hostility and without ill will.
Approaching the Dhamma 91
"When, Kalamas, this noble disciple has thus made his mind free of
enmity, free of ill will, uncorrupted and pure, he has won four assur-
ances in this very life.
"The first assurance he has won is this: 'If there is another world,
and if good and bad deeds bear fruit and yield results, it is possible that
with the breakup of the body, after death, I shall arise in a good desti-
nation, in a heavenly world.'
"The second assurance he has won is this: 'If there is no other world,
and if good and bad deeds do not bear fruit and yield results, still right
here, in this very life, I live happily, free of enmity and ill will.
"The third assurance he has won is this: 'Suppose evil befalls the
evil-doer. Then, as I do not intend evil for anyone, how can suffering
afflict me, one who does no evil deed?'
"The fourth assurance he has won is this: 'Suppose evil does not
befall the evil-doer. Then right here I see myself purified in both
respects.'
7
"When, Kalamas, this noble disciple has thus made his mind free of
enmity, free of ill will, uncorrupted, and pure, he has won these four
assurances in this very life."
"So it is, Blessed One! So it is, Fortunate One! When this noble dis-
ciple has thus made his mind free of enmity, free of ill will, uncorrupted
and pure, he has won these four assurances in this very life.
"Magnificent, venerable sir! Magnificent, venerable sir! The Blessed
One has made the Dhamma clear in many ways, as though he were
turning upright what had been overthrown, revealing what was hid-
den, showing the way to one who was lost, or holding up a lamp in the
darkness so those with good eyesight can see forms. We now go for
refuge to the Blessed One, to the Dhamma, and to the Sahgha of
monks. Let the Blessed One accept us as lay followers who have gone
for refuge from today until life's end."
8
(AN 3:65; 1188-93)
3
- THE VISIBLE ORIGIN
AND PASSING AWAY OF SUFFERING
one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at a town of the Mal-
8 named Uruvelakappa. Then Bhadraka the headman
9
approached
92 In the Buddha's Words
the Blessed One, paid homage to him, sat down to one side, and said
to him: "It would be good, venerable sir, if the Blessed One would
teach me about the origin and the passing away of suffering."
"If, headman, I were to teach you about the origin and the passing
away of suffering with reference to the past, saying, 'So it was in the
past/ perplexity and uncertainty about that might arise in you. And if
I were to teach you about the origin and the passing away of suffering
with reference to the future, saying, 'So it will be in the future/ perplex-
ity and uncertainty about that might arise in you. Instead, headman,
while I am sitting right here, and you are sitting right there, I will teach
you about the origin and the passing away of suffering. Listen and
attend closely, I will speak."
"Yes, venerable sir," Bhadraka replied. The Blessed One said this:
"What do you think, headman? Are there any people in Uruve-
lakappa on whose account sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and
despair would arise in you if they were to be executed, imprisoned,
fined, or censured?"
"There are such people, venerable sir."
"But are there any people in Uruvelakappa on whose account sor-
row, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair would not arise in you
in such an event?"
"There are such people, venerable sir."
"Why is it, headman, that in relation to some people in Uruvela-
kappa sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair would arise in
you if they were to be executed, imprisoned, fined, or censured, while
in regard to others they would not arise in you?"
"Those people in Uruvelakappa, venerable sir, in relation to whom
sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair would arise in me if
they were to be executed, imprisoned, fined, or censured—these are
the ones for whom I have desire and attachment. But those people in
Uruvelakappa in relation to whom they would not arise in me—these
are the ones for whom I have no desire and attachment."
"Headman, by means of this principle that is seen, understood,
immediately attained, fathomed, apply the method to the past and to
the future thus: 'Whatever suffering arose in the past, all that arose
rooted in desire, with desire as its source; for desire is the root of suffer-
ing. Whatever suffering will arise in the future, all that will arise rooted
in desire, with desire as its source; for desire is the root of suffering.'"
Approaching the Dhamma 93
"It is wonderful, venerable sir! It is amazing, venerable sir! How well
that has been stated by the Blessed One: 'Whatever suffering arises, all
that is rooted in desire, has desire as its source; for desire is the root of
suffering.'
10
Venerable sir, I have a son named Ciravasi, who stays at an
outside residence. I rise early and send a man, saying, 'Go, man, and
find out how Ciravasi is.' Until that man returns, venerable sir, I am
upset, thinking, T hope Ciravasi has not met with any affliction!'"
"What do you think, headman? If Ciravasi were to be executed,
imprisoned, fined, or censured, would sorrow, lamentation, pain,
dejection, and despair arise in you?"
"Venerable sir, if Ciravasi were to be executed, imprisoned, fined, or
censured, even my life would seem futile, so how could sorrow, lamen-
tation, pain, dejection, and despair not arise in me?"
"In this way too, headman, it can be understood: 'Whatever suffer-
ing arises, all that arises rooted in desire, with desire as its source; for
desire is the root of suffering.'
"What do you think, headman? Before you saw your wife or heard
about her, did you have any desire, attachment, or affection for her?"
"No, venerable sir."
"Then was it, headman, only when you saw her or heard about her
that this desire, attachment, and affection arose in you?"
"Yes, venerable sir."
"What do you think, headman? If your wife were to be executed,
imprisoned, fined, or censured, would sorrow, lamentation, pain,
dejection, and despair arise in you?"
"Venerable sir, if my wife were to be executed, imprisoned, fined, or
censured, even my life would seem futile, so how could sorrow, lamen-
tation, pain, dejection, and despair not arise in me?"
"In this way too, headman, it can be understood: 'Whatever suffer-
ing arises, all that arises rooted in desire, with desire as its source; for
desire is the root of suffering.'"
(SN 42:11; IV 327-30)
4- INVESTIGATE THE TEACHER HIMSELF
Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living at
a
Vatthi in Jeta's Grove, Anathapindika's Park. There he addressed the
94 In the Buddha's Words
monks thus: "Monks!"—"Venerable sir!" they replied. The Blessed One
said this:
2. "Monks, a monk who is an inquirer, not knowing how to gauge
another's mind,
11
should make an investigation of the Tathagata in
order to find out whether or not he is perfectly enlightened."
3. "Venerable sir, our teachings are rooted in the Blessed One, guided
by the Blessed One, have the Blessed One as their resort. It would be
good if the Blessed One would explain the meaning of these words.
Having heard it from him, the monks will remember it."
"Then listen, monks, and attend closely to what I shall say."
"Yes, venerable sir," the monks replied. The Blessed One said this:
4. "Monks, a monk who is an inquirer, not knowing how to gauge
another's mind, should investigate the Tathagata with respect to two
kinds of states, states cognizable through the eye and through the ear
thus: 'Are there found in the Tathagata or not any defiled states cogniz-
able through the eye or through the ear?'
12
When he investigates him,
he comes to know: 'No defiled states cognizable through the eye or
through the ear are found in the Tathagata.'
5. "When he comes to know this, he investigates him further thus:
'Are there found in the Tathagata or not any mixed states cognizable
through the eye or through the ear?'
13
When he investigates him, he
comes to know: 'No mixed states cognizable through the eye or
through the ear are found in the Tathagata.'
6. "When he comes to know this, he investigates him further thus:
'Are there found in the Tathagata or not cleansed states cognizable
through the eye or through the ear?' When he investigates him, he
comes to know: 'Cleansed states cognizable through the eye or through
the ear are found in the Tathagata.'
7. "When he comes to know this, he investigates him further thus:
'Has this venerable one attained this wholesome state over a long time
or did he attain it recently?' When he investigates him, he comes to
know: 'This venerable one has attained this wholesome state over a
long time; he did not attain it only recently'
8. "When he comes to know this, he investigates him further thus:
'Has this venerable one acquired renown and attained fame, so that
the dangers [connected with renown and fame] are found in him?' For,
monks, as long as a monk has not acquired renown and attained fame,
the dangers [connected with renown and fame] are not found in him;
Approaching the Dhamma 95
but when he has acquired renown and attained fame, those dangers are
found in him.
14
When he investigates him, he comes to know: 'This
venerable one has acquired renown and attained fame, but the dan-
gers [connected with renown and fame] are not found in him.'
9. "When he comes to know this, he investigates him further thus: 'Is
this venerable one restrained without fear, not restrained by fear, and
does he avoid indulging in sensual pleasures because he is without
lust through the destruction of lust?' When he investigates him, he
comes to know: 'This venerable one is restrained without fear, not
restrained by fear, and he avoids indulging in sensual pleasure because
he is without lust through the destruction of lust.'
10. "Now, monks, if others should ask that monk thus: 'What are the
venerable one's reasons and what is his evidence whereby he says:
"That venerable one is restrained without fear, not restrained by fear,
and he avoids indulging in sensual pleasures because he is without lust
through the destruction of lust"?'—answering rightly, that monk would
answer thus: 'Whether that venerable one dwells in the Sahgha or
alone, while some there are well behaved and some are ill behaved and
some there teach a group, while some here are seen concerned about
material things and some are unsullied by material things, still that ven-
erable one does not despise anyone because of that.
15
And I have heard
and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: "I am restrained with-
out fear, not restrained by fear, and I avoid indulging in sensual pleas-
ures because I am without lust through the destruction of lust.'"
11. "The
Tathagata, monks, should be questioned further about that
thus: 'Are there found in the Tathagata or not any defiled states cogniz-
able through the eye or through the ear?' The Tathagata would answer
thus: 'No defiled states cognizable through the eye or through the ear
are found in the Tathagata.'
12. "If asked, 'Are there found in the Tathagata or not any mixed
states cognizable through the eye or through the ear?' the Tathagata
w
ould answer thus: 'No mixed states cognizable through the eye or
through the ear are found in the Tathagata.'
13. "If asked, 'Are there found in the Tathagata or not cleansed states
co
gnizable through the eye or through the ear?' the Tathagata would
answer thus: 'Cleansed states cognizable through the eye or through
he ear are found in the Tathagata. They are my pathway and my
d
°rnain, yet I do not identify with them.'
96 In the Buddha's Words
14. "Monks, a disciple should approach the Teacher who speaks thus
in order to hear the Dhamma. The Teacher teaches him the Dhamma
with its successively higher levels, with its successively more sublime
levels, with its dark and bright counterparts. As the Teacher teaches the
Dhamma to a monk in this way, through direct knowledge of a certain
teaching here in that Dhamma, the monk comes to a conclusion about
the teachings.
16
He places confidence in the Teacher thus: The Blessed
One is perfectly enlightened, the Dhamma is well proclaimed by the
Blessed One, the Sahgha is practicing the good way.'
15. "Now if others should ask that monk thus: 'What are the vener-
able one's reasons and what is his evidence whereby he says, "The
Blessed One is perfectly enlightened, the Dhamma is well proclaimed
by the Blessed One, the Sahgha is practicing the good way"?'—answer-
ing rightly, that monk would answer thus: 'Here, friends, I approached
the Blessed One in order to hear the Dhamma. The Blessed One taught
me the Dhamma with its successively higher levels, with its succes-
sively more sublime levels, with its dark and bright counterparts. As
the Blessed One taught the Dhamma to me in this way, through direct
knowledge of a certain teaching here in that Dhamma, I came to a con-
clusion about the teachings. I placed confidence in the Teacher thus:
"The Blessed One is perfectly enlightened, the Dhamma is well pro-
claimed by the Blessed One, the Sahgha is practicing the good way."'
16. "Monks, when anyone's faith has been planted, rooted, and
established in the Tathagata through these reasons, terms, and phrases,
his faith is said to be supported by reasons, rooted in vision, firm; it is
invincible by any ascetic or brahmin or deva or Mara or Brahma or by
anyone in the world.
17
That is how, monks, there is an investigation of
the Tathagata in accordance with the Dhamma, and that is how the
Tathagata is well investigated in accordance with the Dhamma."
That is what the Blessed One said. The monks were satisfied and
delighted in the Blessed One's words.
(MN 47: Vimamsaka Sutta; 1317-20)
5. STEPS TOWARD THE REALIZATION OF TRUTH
10. Then the brahmin Cahkl,
18
together with a large company of brah-
mins, went to the Blessed One, exchanged greetings with him, and sat
down at one side.
Approaching the Dhamma 97
11. Now on that occasion the Blessed One was seated finishing some
amiable talk with some very senior brahmins. At the time, sitting in the
assembly, was a brahmin student named Kapathika. Young, shaven-
headed, sixteen years old, he was a master of the three Vedas with their
vocabularies, liturgy, phonology, and etymology, and the histories as a
fifth; skilled in philology and grammar, he was fully versed in natural
philosophy and in the marks of a great man. While the very senior
brahmins were conversing with the Blessed One, he repeatedly broke
in and interrupted their talk. Then the Blessed One rebuked the brah-
min student Kapathika thus: "The honorable Bharadvaja
19
shouldn't
break in and interrupt the talk of the very senior brahmins while they
are conversing. He should wait until the talk is finished."
When this was said, the brahmin Cahki said to the Blessed One:
"Master Gotama shouldn't rebuke the brahmin student Kapathika.
This brahmin student is very learned; he has a good delivery; he is
wise. He can well take part in this discussion with Master Gotama."
12. Then the Blessed One thought: "Surely, since the brahmins honor
him thus, the brahmin student Kapathika must be accomplished in the
scriptures of the three Vedas."
Then the brahmin student Kapathika thought: "When the ascetic
Gotama catches my eye, I shall ask him a question."
Then, knowing with his own mind the thought in the brahmin stu-
dent Kapathika's mind, the Blessed One turned his eye toward him.
Then the brahmin student Kapathika thought: "The ascetic Gotama
has turned toward me. Suppose I ask him a question." Then he said to
the Blessed One: "Master Gotama, in regard to the ancient brahmin
hymns that have come down through oral transmission, preserved in
the collections, the brahmins come to the definite conclusion: 'Only
this is true, anything else is wrong.' What does Master Gotama say
about this?"
13. "How then, Bharadvaja, among the brahmins is there even a sin-
gle brahmin who says thus: T know this, I see this: only this is true,
anything else is wrong'?"—"No, Master Gotama."
How then, Bharadvaja, among the brahmins is there even a single
teacher or a single teacher's teacher back to the seventh generation of
teachers who says thus: T know this, I see this: only this is true, any-
thing else is wrong'?"—"No, Master Gotama."
How then, Bharadvaja, the ancient brahmin seers, the creators of
ne
hymns, the composers of the hymns, whose ancient hymns that
98 In the Buddha's Words
were formerly chanted, uttered, and compiled, the brahmins nowa-
days still chant and repeat, repeating what was spoken and reciting
what was recited—that is, Atthaka, Vamaka, Vamadeva, Vessamitta,
Yamataggi, Angirasa, Bharadvaja, Vasettha, Kassapa, and Bhagu
20
did even these ancient brahmin seers say thus: 'We know this, we see
this: only this is true, anything else is wrong'?"—"No, Master
Gotama."
"So, Bharadvaja, it seems that among the brahmins there is not even
a single brahmin who says thus: 'I know this, I see this: only this is
true, anything else is wrong.' And among the brahmins there is not
even a single teacher or a single teacher's teacher back to the seventh
generation of teachers, who says thus: 'I know this, I see this: only this
is true, anything else is wrong.' And the ancient brahmin seers, the cre-
ators of the hymns, the composers of the hymns ... even these ancient
brahmin seers did not say thus: 'We know this, we see this: only this is
true, anything else is wrong.' Suppose there were a file of blind men
each in touch with the next: the first one does not see, the middle one
does not see, and the last one does not see. So too, Bharadvaja, in
regard to their statement the brahmins seem to be like a file of blind
men: the first one does not see, the middle one does not see, and the
last one does not see. What do you think, Bharadvaja, that being so,
does not the faith of the brahmins turn out to be groundless?"
14. "The brahmins honor this not only out of faith, Master Gotama.
They also honor it as oral tradition."
"Bharadvaja, first you took your stand on faith, now you speak of
oral tradition. There are five things, Bharadvaja, that may turn out in
two different ways here and now. What five? Faith, approval, oral tra-
dition, reasoned cogitation, and acceptance of a view as a result of pon-
dering it.
21
These five things may turn out in two different ways here
and now. Now something may be fully accepted out of faith, yet it may
be empty, hollow, and false; but something else may not be fully
accepted out of faith, yet it may be factual, true, and unmistaken.
Again, something may be fully approved of ... well transmitted ... well
cogitated ... well pondered, yet it may be empty, hollow, and false; but
something else may not be well pondered, yet it may be factual, true,
and unmistaken. [Under these conditions] it is not proper for a wise
man who preserves truth to come to the definite conclusion: 'Only this
is true, anything else is wrong.'"
22
Approaching the Dhatnma 99
15. "But, Master Gotama, in what way is there the preservation of
truth?
23
How does one preserve truth? We ask Master Gotama about
the preservation of truth."
"If a person has faith, Bharadvaja, he preserves truth when he says:
'My faith is thus'; but he does not yet come to the definite conclusion:
'Only this is true, anything else is wrong.' In this way, Bharadvaja,
there is the preservation of truth; in this way he preserves truth; in this
way we describe the preservation of truth. But as yet there is no discov-
ery of truth.
24
"If a person approves of something ... if he receives an oral tradi-
tion ... if he [reaches a conclusion based on] reasoned cogitation ... if
he accepts a view as a result of pondering it, he preserves truth when
he says: 'The view that I accept as a result of pondering it is thus'; but
he does not yet come to the definite conclusion: 'Only this is true, any-
thing else is wrong.' In this way too, Bharadvaja, there is the preser-
vation of truth; in this way he preserves truth; in this way we describe
the preservation of truth. But as yet there is no discovery of truth."
16. "In that way, Master Gotama, there is the preservation of truth;
in that way one preserves truth; in that way we recognize the preser-
vation of truth. But in what way, Master Gotama, is there the discov-
ery of truth? In what way does one discover truth? We ask Master
Gotama about the discovery of truth."
17. "Here, Bharadvaja, a monk may be living in dependence on some
village or town. Then a householder or a householder's son goes to
him and investigates him in regard to three kinds of states: in regard
to states based on greed, in regard to states based on hate, and in regard
to states based on delusion: 'Are there in this monk any states based on
greed such that, with his mind obsessed by those states, while not
knowing he might say, "I know," or while not seeing he might say, "I
see," or he might urge others to act in a way that would lead to their
harm and suffering for a long time?' As he investigates him he comes
to know: 'There are no such states based on greed in this monk. The
bodily and verbal behavior of this monk are not those of one affected
by greed. And the Dhamma that he teaches is profound, hard to see
and hard to understand, peaceful and sublime, unattainable by mere
reasoning, subtle, to be experienced by the wise. This Dhamma cannot
easily be taught by one affected by greed.'
18. "When he has investigated him and has seen that he is purified
100 In the Buddha's Words
from states based on greed, he next investigates him in regard to states
based on hate: 'Are there in this monk any states based on hate such
that, with his mind obsessed by those states ... he might urge others to
act in a way that would lead to their harm and suffering for a long
time?' As he investigates him, he comes to know: 'There are no such
states based on hate in this monk. The bodily and verbal behavior of
this monk are not those of one affected by hate. And the Dhamma that
he teaches is profound ... to be experienced by the wise. This Dhamma
cannot easily be taught by one affected by hate.'
19. "When he has investigated him and has seen that he is purified
from states based on hate, he next investigates him in regard to states
based on delusion: 'Are there in this monk any states based on delu-
sion such that, with his mind obsessed by those states ... he might
urge others to act in a way that would lead to their harm and suffer-
ing for a long time?' As he investigates him, he comes to know: 'There
are no such states based on delusion in this monk. The bodily and ver-
bal behavior of this monk are not those of one affected by delusion.
And the Dhamma that he teaches is profound ... to be experienced
by the wise. This Dhamma cannot easily be taught by one affected by
delusion.'
20. "When he has investigated him and has seen that he is purified
from states based on delusion, then he places faith in him; filled with
faith he visits him and pays respect to him; having paid respect to him,
he gives ear; when he gives ear, he hears the Dhamma; having heard
the Dhamma, he memorizes it and examines the meaning of the teach-
ings he has memorized; when he examines their meaning, he accepts
those teachings as a result of pondering them; when he has accepted
those teachings as a result of pondering them, desire springs up; when
desire has sprung up, he applies his will; having applied his will, he
scrutinizes; having scrutinized, he strives; resolutely striving, he real-
izes with the body the supreme truth and sees it by penetrating it with
wisdom.
25
In this way, Bharadvaja, there is the discovery of truth; in this
way one discovers truth; in this way we describe the discovery of truth.
But as yet there is no final arrival at truth."
26
21. "In that way, Master Gotama, there is the discovery of truth; in
that way one discovers truth; in that way we recognize the discovery
of truth. But in what way, Master Gotama, is there the final arrival at
truth? In what way does one finally arrive at truth? We ask Master
Gotama about the final arrival at truth."
Approaching the Dhamma 101
"The final arrival at truth, Bharadvaja, lies in the repetition, develop-
ment, and cultivation of those same things. In this way, Bharadvaja,
there is the final arrival at truth; in this way one finally arrives at truth;
in this way we describe the final arrival at truth."
22. "In that way, Master Gotama, there is the final arrival at truth; in
that way one finally arrives at truth; in that way we recognize the final
arrival at truth. But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for the final
arrival at truth? We ask Master Gotama about the thing most helpful
for the final arrival at truth."
"Striving is most helpful for the final arrival at truth, Bharadvaja. If
one does not strive, one will not finally arrive at truth; but because one
strives, one does finally arrive at truth. That is why striving is most
helpful for the final arrival at truth."
23. "But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for striving? We ask
Master Gotama about the thing most helpful for striving."
"Scrutiny is most helpful for striving, Bharadvaja. If one does not
scrutinize, one will not strive; but because one scrutinizes, one strives.
That is why scrutiny is most helpful for striving."
24. "But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for scrutiny? We ask
Master Gotama about the thing most helpful for scrutiny."
"Application of the will is most helpful for scrutiny, Bharadvaja. If
one does not apply one's will, one will not scrutinize; but because one
applies one's will, one scrutinizes. That is why application of the will
is most helpful for scrutiny."
25. "But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for application of the
will? We ask Master Gotama about the thing most helpful for applica-
tion of the will."
"Desire is most helpful for application of the will, Bharadvaja. If one
does not arouse desire, one will not apply one's will; but because one
arouses desire, one applies one's will. That is why desire is most help-
ful for application of the will."
26. "But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for desire? We ask
Master Gotama about the thing most helpful for desire."
"Accepting the teachings as a result of pondering them is most help-
ful for desire, Bharadvaja. If one does not accept the teachings as a
result of pondering them, desire will not spring up; but because one
accepts the teachings as a result of pondering them, desire springs up.
* hat is why accepting the teachings as a result of pondering them is
rnost helpful for desire."
102 In the Buddha's Words
27. "But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for accepting the
teachings as a result of pondering them? We ask Master Gotama about
the thing most helpful for accepting the teachings as a result of ponder-
ing them."
"Examination of the meaning is most helpful for accepting the teach-
ings as a result of pondering them, Bharadvaja. If one does not exam-
ine their meaning, one will not accept the teachings as a result of
pondering them; but because one examines their meaning, one accepts
the teachings as a result of pondering them. That is why examination
of the meaning is most helpful for accepting the teachings as a result
of pondering them."
28. "But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for examination of
the meaning? We ask Master Gotama about the thing most helpful for
examination of meaning."
"Memorizing the teachings is most helpful for examining the mean-
ing, Bharadvaja. If one does not memorize a teaching, one will not
examine its meaning; but because one memorizes a teaching, one
examines its meaning."
29. "But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for memorizing the
teachings? We ask Master Gotama about the thing most helpful for
memorizing the teachings."
"Hearing the Dhamma is most helpful for memorizing the teach-
ings, Bharadvaja. If one does not hear the Dhamma, one will not mem-
orize the teachings; but because one hears the Dhamma, one
memorizes the teachings. That is why hearing the Dhamma is most
helpful for memorizing the teachings."
30. "But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for hearing the
Dhamma? We ask Master Gotama about the thing most helpful for
hearing the Dhamma."
"Giving ear is most helpful for hearing the Dhamma, Bharadvaja. If
one does not give ear, one will not hear the Dhamma; but because one
gives ear, one hears the Dhamma. That is why giving ear is most help-
ful for hearing the Dhamma."
31. "But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for giving ear? We
ask Master Gotama about the thing most helpful for giving ear."
"Paying respect is most helpful for giving ear, Bharadvaja. If one
does not pay respect, one will not give ear; but because one pays
respect, one gives ear. That is why paying respect is most helpful for
giving ear."
Approaching the Dhamma 103
32. "But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for paying respect?
We ask Master Gotama about the thing most helpful for paying respect."
"Visiting is most helpful for paying respect, Bharadvaja. If one does
n
ot visit a teacher, one will not pay respect to him; but because one
visits a teacher, one pays respect to him. That is why visiting is most
helpful for paying respect."
33. "But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for visiting? We ask
Master Gotama about the thing most helpful for visiting."
"Faith is most helpful for visiting, Bharadvaja. If faith in a teacher
does not arise, one will not visit him; but because faith in a teacher
arises, one visits him. That is why faith is most helpful for visiting."
34. "We asked Master Gotama about the preservation of truth, and
Master Gotama answered about the preservation of truth; we approve
of and accept that answer, and so we are satisfied. We asked Master
Gotama about the discovery of truth, and Master Gotama answered
about the discovery of truth; we approve of and accept that answer,
and so we are satisfied. We asked Master Gotama about the final
arrival at truth, and Master Gotama answered about the final arrival at
truth; we approve of and accept that answer, and so we are satisfied.
We asked Master Gotama about the thing most helpful for the final
arrival at truth, and Master Gotama answered about the thing most
helpful for the final arrival at truth; we approve of and accept that
answer, and so we are satisfied. Whatever we asked Master Gotama
about, that he has answered us; we approve of and accept that answer,
and so we are satisfied. Formerly, Master Gotama, we used to think:
'Who are these bald-headed ascetics, these dark menial offspring of
the Lord's feet, that they would understand the Dhamma?'
27
But Mas-
ter Gotama has indeed inspired in me love for ascetics, confidence in
ascetics, reverence for ascetics.
35. "Magnificent, Master Gotama! Magnificent, Master Gotama!...
[as in Text 111,2] ... From today let Master Gotama remember me as a
lay follower who has gone to him for refuge for life."
(from MN 95: Canki Sutta; II168-77)
IV The Happiness Visible
in This Present Life
'IP "-,,. :
INTRODUCTION
Is it the case, as some scholars hold, that the Buddha's original message
was exclusively one of world-transcending liberation, with little rele-
vance for people stuck in the routines of worldly life? Did the ancient
Buddhists believe that it was only in the monastery that the real prac-
tice of the Dhamma began and that only those who left the world were
considered proper receptacles of the teaching? Did the Buddha's teach-
ings for the laity have no more than a token significance? Were they
mainly injunctions to acquire merit by offering material support to the
monastic order and its members so that they could become monks and
nuns (preferably monks) in future lives and then get down to the real
practice?
At certain periods, in almost all traditions, Buddhists have lent sup-
port to the assumptions that underlie these questions. They have
spurned concern with the present life and dismissed the world as a
valley of tears, a deceptive illusion, convinced that the sign of spiri-
tual maturity is an exclusive focus on emancipation from the round of
birth and death. Monks have sometimes displayed little interest in
showing those still stuck in the world how to use the wisdom of the
Dhamma to deal with the problems of ordinary life. Householders in
turn have seen little hope of spiritual progress in their own chosen
mode of life and have thus resigned themselves merely to gaining
merit by offering material support to the monks.
While the Nikayas reveal the crown of the Buddha's teachings to lie
in the path to final release from suffering, it would be a mistake to
reduce the teachings, so diverse in the original sources, to their tran-
scendent pinnacle. We must again recall the statement that a Buddha
arises "for the welfare of the multitude, for the happiness of the multi-
tude ... out of compassion for the world, for the good, welfare, and hap-
piness of devas and humans" (p. 50). The function of a Buddha is to
discover, realize, and proclaim the Dhamma in its full range and depth,
a
nd this involves a comprehensive understanding of the varied appli-
cations of the Dhamma in all its multiple dimensions. A Buddha not
107
108 In the Buddha's Words
only penetrates to the unconditioned state of perfect bliss that lies
beyond samsara, outside the pale of birth, aging, and death; he not
only proclaims the path to full enlightenment and final liberation; but
he also illuminates the many ways the Dhamma applies to the complex
conditions of human life for people still immersed in the world.
The Dhamma, in its broadest sense, is the immanent, invariable
order of the universe in which truth, lawful regularity, and virtue are
inextricably merged. This cosmic Dhamma is reflected in the human
mind as the aspiration for truth, spiritual beauty, and goodness; it is
expressed in human conduct as wholesome bodily, verbal, and mental
action. The Dhamma has institutional embodiments as well as expres-
sions in the lives of individuals who look upon it as their source of
guidance in the proper conduct of life. These embodiments are both
secular and spiritual. Buddhist tradition sees the responsibility for
upholding the Dhamma in the secular domain as falling to the leg-
endary wheel-turning monarch (raja cakkavatti). The wheel-turning
monarch is the benevolent ruler who governs his kingdom in accor-
dance with the highest ethical norms (dhammiko dhammaraja) and
thereby peacefully unites the world under a reign of universal justice
and prosperity. As Text IV,1(D shows, within the spiritual domain, the
Buddha is the counterpart of the wheel-turning monarch. Like the lat-
ter, the Buddha relies on the Dhamma and reveres the Dhamma, but
whereas the wheel-turning monarch relies upon the Dhamma as prin-
ciple of righteousness to rule his kingdom, the Buddha relies upon the
Dhamma as ethical and spiritual norm to teach and transform human
beings and guide them toward proper conduct of body, speech, and
mind. Neither the wheel-turning monarch nor the Buddha creates the
Dhamma they uphold, yet neither can perform their respective func-
tions without it; for the Dhamma is the objective, impersonal, ever-
existent principle of order that serves as the source and standard for
their respective policies and promulgations.
As the king of the Dhamma, the Buddha takes up the task of promot-
ing the true good, welfare, and happiness of the world. He does so by
teaching the people of the world how to live in accordance with the
Dhamma and behave in such a way that they can attain realization of
the same liberating Dhamma that he realized through his enlighten-
ment. The Pali commentaries demonstrate the broad scope of the
Dhamma by distinguishing three types of benefit that the Buddha's
The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 109
teaching is intended to promote, graded hierarchically according to
their relative merit:
1. welfare and happiness directly visible in this present life (dittha-
dhamma-hitasukha), attained by fulfilling one's moral commitments
and social responsibilities;
2. welfare and happiness pertaining to the next life (samparayika-
hitasukha), attained by engaging in meritorious deeds;
3. the ultimate good or supreme goal (paramattha), Nibbana, final
release from the cycle of rebirths, attained by developing the
Noble Eightfold Path.
While many Western writers on Early Buddhism have focused on
this last aspect as almost exclusively representing the Buddha's origi-
nal teaching, a balanced presentation should give consideration to all
three aspects. Therefore, in this chapter and those to follow, we will be
exploring texts from the Nikayas that illustrate each of these three
facets of the Dhamma.
The present chapter includes a variety of texts on the Buddha's teach-
ings that pertain to the happiness directly visible in this present life.
The most comprehensive Nikaya text in this genre is the Sigalaka Sutta
(DN 31, also known as the Sihgalovada Sutta), sometimes called "The
Layperson's Code of Discipline." The heart of this sutta is the section on
"worshipping the six directions"—Text IV,1(2)—in which the Buddha
freely reinterprets an ancient Indian ritual, infusing it with a new ethi-
cal meaning. The practice of "worshipping the six directions," as
explained by the Buddha, presupposes that society is sustained by a
network of interlocking relationships that bring coherence to the social
order when its members fulfill their reciprocal duties and responsibil-
ities in a spirit of kindness, sympathy, and good will. The six basic social
relationships that the Buddha draws upon to fill out his metaphor are:
parents and children, teacher and pupils, husband and wife, friend and
friend, employer and workers, lay follower and religious guides. Each
is considered one of the six directions in relation to its counterpart. For
a young man like Sigalaka, his parents are the east, his teachers the
south, his wife and children the west, his friends the north, his work-
ers the nadir, and religious guides the zenith. With his customary sense
of systematic concision, the Buddha ascribes to each member of each
pair five obligations with respect to his or her counterpart; when each
110 In the Buddha's Words
member fulfills these obligations, the corresponding "direction" comes
to be "at peace and free from fear." "Thus, for Early Buddhism, the
social stability and security that contribute to human happiness are
most effectively achieved when every member of society fulfills the
various duties that befall them as determined by their social relation-
ships. Each person rises above the demands of narrow self-interest and
develops a sincere, large-hearted concern for the welfare of others and
the greater good of the whole."
From this general code of lay Buddhist ethics, we turn to texts that
offer more specific points of advice, beginning with a selection of suttas
on "The Family." This has separate sections on "Parents and Children"
(IV,2(1)) and "Husbands and Wives" (IV,2(2)). In keeping with the
norms of Indian society—in fact, of virtually all traditional agrarian
societies—the Buddha regards the family as the basic unit of social
integration and acculturation. It is especially the close, loving relation-
ship between parents and children that fosters the virtues and sense of
humane responsibility essential to a cohesive social order. Within the
family, these values are transmitted from one generation to the next,
and thus a harmonious society is highly dependent on harmonious
relations between parents and children. The Buddha emphasizes filial
piety—Text IV,2(l)(a)—and the gratitude of children to their parents,
a debt they can adequately repay only by establishing their parents in
the proper Dhamma—Text IV,2(l)(b).
Wholesome relations between parents and children depend in turn
upon the mutual affection and respect of husband and wife, and thus the
Buddha also offers guidelines for proper relationships between married
couples. These again emphasize a common commitment to ethical con-
duct and spiritual ideals. Of special interest to us, at a time when many
marriages end so soon in divorce, is the Buddha's advice to the loving
couple Nakulapita and Nakulamata—Text IV,2(2)(b)—on how the love
between a husband and his wife can be sustained so strongly that they
can be reunited in their future lives. This discourse also shows that far
from demanding that his lay disciples spurn the desires of the world, the
Buddha was ready to show those still under the sway of worldly desire
how to obtain the objects of their desire. The one requirement he laid
down was that the fulfillment of desire be regulated by ethical principles.
Next come a number of texts dealing with different aspects of house-
hold life united by an emphasis on right livelihood. Two characteristics
The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 111
of the Buddha's injunctions to his lay followers regarding the pursuit
of mundane happiness stand out from these texts.
First, in seeking "the good visible in this present life," the lay fol-
lower should consistently adhere to principles of right conduct, espe-
cially to the five precepts and the rules of right livelihood. Thus, for
example, he stipulates that wealth must be "acquired by energetic
striving ... righteous wealth righteously gained"—Text IV,3. Again, he
asks his lay followers to use the wealth they obtain not only to gratify
themselves but also to benefit their dependents and others who live on
charity, particularly virtuous ascetics and brahmins—Text IV,4(2).
Second, the lay follower should not rest content with the mere pur-
suit of temporal well-being and happiness but should also seek the
well-being and happiness pertaining to the future life. This is to be
done by fostering those qualities that lead to a happy rebirth and the
attainment of Nibbana. According to Texts IV,3 and IV,5, the principal
virtues a lay follower should possess, leading to future welfare, are:
(1) faith (in the Buddha as the Enlightened One), (2) moral discipline (as
unbroken observance of the five precepts), (3) generosity (as applica-
tion to charity, giving, and sharing), and (4) wisdom (as insight into the
arising and passing away of phenomena). For Early Buddhism, the
ideal householder is not merely a devout supporter of the monastic
order but a noble person who has attained at least the first of the four
stages of realization, the fruition of stream-entry (sotapatti).
Finally, with section 6, we come to a selection of texts on "the Com-
munity." I use this word to refer broadly to both the Sahgha, the
monastic order, and the civil society in which any branch of the monas-
tic order must be rooted. From the Nikayas, it is clear that while the
Buddha principally aimed at guiding people toward moral and spiri-
tual progress, he was fully aware that their capacity for moral and spir-
itual development depends upon the material conditions of the society
in which they live. He acutely realized that when people are mired in
poverty and oppressed by hunger and want, they will find it hard to
hold to a path of moral rectitude. The sheer pain of hunger, and the
need to ward off the elements and provide for their families, will com-
pel them to stoop to types of behavior they would avoid if they could
obtain fair employment and adequate remuneration for their services.
Thus he saw that the provision of economic justice is integral to social
harmony and political stability.
112 In the Buddha's Words
The first two texts included here prescribe two sets of guidelines for
the monastic order. Both are excerpts from a long discourse the Buddha
spoke shortly after the death of Mahavira, the leader of the Jains.
According to the Nikayas, following their leader's death, the Jain
monastic order was already beginning to split up, and the Buddha
must have felt compelled to lay down guidelines to protect his own
order from sharing the same fate after his passing. Text IV,6(1) enu-
merates six qualities that lead to quarrels and disputes, which the
monks should be wary of and strive to eliminate when they discover
them within themselves. Although these guidelines are laid down for
the monks, they can easily be given a wider application to any organ-
ization, secular or religious, for it is the same six factors that lie at the
bottom of all conflicts. The positive counterpart to this set of caution-
ary guidelines is Text IV,6(2), which enumerates "six principles of cor-
diality" that lead to love, respect, and harmony among the members of
the community. Again, with appropriate adaptation, these principles-
loving acts of body, speech, and mind; sharing of possessions; com-
mon observance of precepts; and unity of views—can be given an
extended application beyond a monastic order to the wider commu-
nity. The same sutta provides more detailed guidelines for preserving
harmony in the monastic order after the Buddha's death, but these deal
with aspects of monastic discipline too specialized for the present
anthology.
Text IV,6(3), a long excerpt from the Assalayana Sutta, captures the
Buddha in debate with a precocious brahmin pundit about the brah-
mins' claims on behalf of the caste system. In the Buddha's age the
caste system was only beginning to take shape in northeast India and
had not yet spawned the countless subdivisions and rigid regulations
that were to manacle Indian society through the centuries. Society was
divided into four broad social classes: the brahmins, who performed
the priestly functions prescribed in the Vedas; the khattiyas, the nobles,
warriors, and administrators; the vessas, the merchants and agricultur-
alists; and the suddas, the menials and serfs. There were also those out-
side the pale of the four main classes, who were regarded as even lower
than the suddas. From the Nikayas it appears that the brahmins, while
vested with authority in religious matters, had not yet attained the
unchallengeable hegemony they were to gain after the appearance of
such works as the Laws of Manu, which laid down the fixed rules of
The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 113
the caste system. They had, however, already embarked on their drive
for domination over the rest of Indian society and did so by propagat-
ing the thesis that brahmins are the highest caste, the divinely blessed
offspring of Brahma who are alone capable of purification.
Contrary to certain popular notions, the Buddha did not agitate for
the abolition of the Indian class system and attempt to establish a class-
less society. Within the Sahgha, however, all caste distinctions were
abrogated from the moment of ordination. People from any of the four
social classes who went forth under the Buddha renounced their class
titles and prerogatives, becoming known simply as disciples of the
Sakyan son (that is, of the Buddha, who was from the Sakyan clan).
Whenever the Buddha and his disciples confronted the brahmins'
claim to superiority, they argued vigorously against them. As our text
shows, the Buddha maintained that all such claims were groundless.
Purification, he contended, was the result of conduct, not of birth, and
was thus accessible to those of all four castes. The Buddha even
stripped the term "brahmin" of its hereditary accretions, and hearken-
ing back to its original connotation of holy man, defined the true brah-
min as the arahant (see MN 98, not included in this anthology).
The next two selections suggest guidelines for political administra-
tion. During the Buddha's time two distinct forms of government pre-
vailed among the states of northern India in which the Buddha moved
and taught, monarchical kingdoms and tribal republics. As a spiritual
teacher, the Buddha did not prefer one type of government to the other,
nor did he actively interfere in affairs of state. But his followers
included leaders from both types of state, and thus he occasionally
offered them guidance intended to ensure that they would govern their
realms in accordance with ethical norms.
The opening scene of the Mahaparinibbana Sutta, the narrative of the
Buddha's last days—Text IV,6(4)—gives us a glimpse into this tumul-
tuous phase of Indian history when Magadha, the rising star among
the northern monarchies, was expanding in influence and absorbing its
neighboring tribal republics. In the passage reproduced here we see
King Ajatasattu, the ruler of Magadha, setting his sights on the Vajjian
confederacy, the largest and best organized of the tribal republics. When
the sutta opens, he sends his chief minister to inquire from the Buddha
whether he has any chance of success in waging war against the
Vajjians. The Buddha questions Ananda about seven conditions of
114 In the Buddha's Words
social stability that he had earlier taught the Vajjians, concluding that
"as long as they keep to these seven principles, as long as these prin-
ciples remain in force, the Vajjians may be expected to prosper and not
decline." He then convenes a meeting of the monks and teaches them
seven analogous principles of stability applicable to the monastic order.
Since the eventual triumph of the monarchical type of government
seemed inevitable, the Buddha sought to establish a model of king-
ship that could curb the arbitrary exercise of power and subordinate
the king to a higher authority. He did so by setting up the ideal of the
"wheel-turning monarch," the righteous king who rules in compliance
with the Dhamma, the impersonal law of righteousness (see Text
IV,1(1)). The Dhamma that he obeys is the ethical basis for his rule.
Symbolized by the sacred wheel-treasure, the Dhamma enables him
to subdue without force all the nations of the world and establish a
universal reign of peace and virtue based on observance of the five
precepts—see Text IV,6(5).
The wheel-turning monarch rules for the welfare and happiness of
his subjects and extends protection to all within his realm, even to the
birds and beasts. Among his duties is to prevent crime from erupting
in his kingdom, and to keep the kingdom safe from crime he must give
wealth to those in need, for in the view of the Nikayas poverty is the
breeding ground of criminality. This theme, mentioned among the
duties of the wheel-turning monarch in Text IV,6(5), is elaborated in
Text IV,6(6). We here see a wise chaplain advise a king that the correct
way to end the plague of theft and brigandage in his realm is not by
imposing harsher punishments and stricter law enforcement, but by
giving the citizens the means to earn their living. Once the people enjoy
a satisfactory standard of living, they will lose all interest in harming
others, and the country will enjoy peace and tranquillity.
IV. THE HAPPINESS VISIBLE
IN THIS PRESENT LIFE
1. UPHOLDING THE DHAMMA IN SOCIETY
(1) The King of the Dhamma
The Blessed One said: "Monks, even a wheel-turning monarch, a just
and righteous king, does not govern his realm without a co-regent."
When he had spoken, a certain monk addressed the Blessed One
thus: "But who, venerable sir, is the co-regent of the wheel-turning
monarch, the just and righteous king?"
"It is the Dhamma, the law of righteousness, O monk," replied the
Blessed One.
1
"In this case, the wheel-turning monarch, the just and righteous
king, relying on the Dhamma, honoring the Dhamma, esteeming and
respecting it, with the Dhamma as his standard, banner, and sover-
eign, provides lawful protection, shelter, and safety for his own
dependents. He provides lawful protection, shelter, and safety for the
khattiyas attending on him; for his army, for the brahmins and house-
holders, for the inhabitants of town and countryside, for ascetics and
brahmins, for the beasts and birds.
"A wheel-turning monarch, a just and righteous king, who thus pro-
vides lawful protection, shelter, and safety for all, is the one who rules
by Dhamma only. And that rule cannot be overthrown by any hostile
human being.
"Even so, O monk, the Tathagata, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlight-
ened One, the just and righteous king of the Dhamma, relying on the
Dhamma, honoring the Dhamma, esteeming and respecting it, with
the Dhamma as his standard, banner, and sovereign, provides lawful
protection, shelter, and safety in regard to action by body, speech, and
mind. [He teaches thus:] 'Such bodily action should be undertaken and
such should not be undertaken. Such verbal action should be under-
taken and such should not be undertaken. Such mental action should
be undertaken and such should not be undertaken.'
115
116 In the Buddha's Words
"The Tathagata, the Arahant, the Fully Enlightened One, the just and
righteous king of the Dhamma, who thus provides lawful protection,
shelter, and safety in regard to action by body, speech, and mind, is
the one who turns the incomparable wheel of the Dhamma in accor-
dance with the Dhamma only. And that wheel of the Dhamma cannot
be turned back by any ascetic or brahmin, by any deva or Mara or
Brahma or by anyone in the world."
2
(AN 3:14; 1109-10)
(2) Worshipping the Six Directions
1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling
at Rajagaha, at the Bamboo Grove, in the Squirrels' Sanctuary. Then
Sigalaka the householder's son, having got up early and gone out of
Rajagaha, was paying homage, with wet clothes and hair and with
joined palms, to the different directions: to the east, the south, the west,
the north, the nadir, and the zenith.
2. And the Blessed One, having risen early and dressed, took his robe
and bowl and went to Rajagaha for alms. And seeing Sigalaka paying
homage to the different directions, he said: "Householder's son, why
have you got up early to pay homage to the different directions?"
"Venerable sir, my father, when he was dying, told me to do so. And
so, out of respect for my father's words, which I revere, honor, and
hold sacred, I have got up early to pay homage in this way to the six
directions."
"But, householder's son, that is not the right way to pay homage to
the six directions according to the Noble One's discipline."
"Well, venerable sir, how should one pay homage to the six direc-
tions according to the Noble One's discipline? It would be good if the
Blessed One would teach me the proper way to pay homage to the six
directions according to the Noble One's discipline."
"Then listen and attend carefully, householder's son, I will speak."
"Yes, venerable sir," Sigalaka said. The Blessed One said this: ...
27. "And how, householder's son, does the noble disciple protect
the six directions? These six things are to be regarded as the six direc-
tions. The east denotes mother and father. The south denotes teachers.
The west denotes wife and children. The north denotes friends and
The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 117
companions. The nadir denotes servants, workers, and helpers. The
zenith denotes ascetics and brahmins.
28. "There are five ways in which a son should minister to his mother
and father as the eastern direction. [He should think:] 'Having been
support^ by them, I will support them. I will perform their duties for
them. I will keep up the family tradition. I will be worthy of my her-
itage. After my parents' deaths I will distribute gifts on their behalf.'
And there are five ways in which the parents, so ministered to by their
son as the eastern direction, will reciprocate: they will restrain him
from evil, support him in doing good, teach him some skill, find him
a suitable wife, and, in due time, hand over his inheritance to him. In
this way the eastern direction is covered, making it at peace and free
from fear.
29. "There are five ways in which pupils should minister to their
teachers as the southern direction: by rising to greet them, by waiting
on them, by being attentive, by serving them, by mastering the skills
they teach. And there are five ways in which their teachers, thus min-
istered to by their pupils as the southern direction, will reciprocate:
they will give thorough instruction, make sure they have grasped what
they should have duly grasped, give them a thorough grounding in
all skills, recommend them to their friends and colleagues, and pro-
vide them with security in all directions. In this way the southern direc-
tion is covered, making it at peace and free from fear.
30. "There are five ways in which a husband should minister to his
wife as the western direction: by honoring her, by not disparaging her,
by not being unfaithful to her, by giving authority to her, by providing
her with adornments. And there are five ways in which a wife, thus
ministered to by her husband as the western direction, will recipro-
cate: by properly organizing her work, by being kind to the servants,
by not being unfaithful, by protecting stores, and by being skillful and
diligent in all she has to do. In this way the western direction is cov-
ered, making it at peace and free from fear.
31. "There are five ways in which a man should minister to his friends
and companions as the northern direction: by gifts, by kindly words, by
looking after their welfare, by treating them like himself, and by keep-
ing his word. And there are five ways in which friends and companions,
thus ministered to by a man as the northern direction, will reciprocate:
118 In the Buddha's Words
by looking after him when he is inattentive, by looking after his prop-
erty when he is inattentive, by being a refuge when he is afraid, by not
deserting him when he is in trouble, and by showing concern for his
children. In this way the northern direction is covered, making it at
peace and free from fear.
32. "There are five ways in which a master should minister to his
servants and workers as the nadir: by arranging their work according
to their strength, by supplying them with food and wages, by looking
after them when they are ill, by sharing special delicacies with them,
and by letting them off work at the right time. And there are five ways
in which servants and workers, thus ministered to by their master as
the nadir, will reciprocate: they will get up before him, go to bed after
him, take only what they are given, do their work properly, and be
bearers of his praise and good repute. In this way the nadir is covered,
making it at peace and free from fear.
33. "There are five ways in which a man should minister to ascetics
and brahmins as the zenith: by kindness in bodily deed, speech, and
thought, by keeping open house for them, and by supplying their bod-
ily needs. And the ascetics and brahmins, thus ministered to by him as
the zenith, will reciprocate in five ways: they will restrain him from
evil, encourage him to do good, be benevolently compassionate toward
him, teach him what he has not heard, and point out to him the way to
heaven. In this way the zenith is covered, making it at peace and free
from fear."
(from DN 31: Sigalaka Sutta; III 180-81,187-91)
2. THE FAMILY
(1) Parents and Children
(a) Respect for Parents
"Monks, those families dwell with Brahma where at home the parents
are respected by their children. Those families dwell with the ancient
teachers where at home the parents are respected by their children.
Those families dwell with the ancient deities where at home the par-
ents are respected by the children. Those families dwell with the holy
ones where at home the parents are respected by their children.
The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 119
"'Brahma/ monks, is a term for father and mother. 'The ancient
teachers' is a term for father and mother. 'The ancient deities' is a term
for father and mother. 'The holy ones' is a term for father and mother.
And why? Parents are of great help to their children; they bring them
up, feed them, and show them the world."
(AN
4:63;
II 70)
(b) Repaying One's Parents
"Monks, I declare that there are two persons one can never repay. What
two? One's mother and father.
"Even if one should carry about one's mother on one shoulder and
one's father on the other, and while doing so should live a hundred
years, reach the age of a hundred years; and if one should attend to
them by anointing them with balms, by massaging, bathing, and rub-
bing their limbs, and they should even void their excrements there
even by that would one not do enough for one's parents, nor would
one repay them. Even if one were to establish one's parents as the
supreme lords and rulers over this earth so rich in the seven treasures,
one would not do enough for them, nor would one repay them. For
what reason? Parents are of great help to their children; they bring
them up, feed them, and show them the world.
"But, monks, one who encourages his unbelieving parents, settles
and establishes them in faith; who encourages his immoral parents,
settles and establishes them in moral discipline; who encourages his
stingy parents, settles and establishes them in generosity; who encour-
ages his ignorant parents, settles and establishes them in wisdom
such a one, monks, does enough for his parents: he repays them and
more than repays them for what they have done."
(AN 2: iv, 2; I 61-62)
(2) Husbands and Wives
(a) Different Kinds of Marriages
On one occasion the Blessed One was traveling along the highway
between Madhura and Veranja, and a number of householders and
their wives were traveling along the same road. Then the Blessed One
left the road and sat down on a seat at the foot of a tree. The household-
ers and their wives saw the Blessed One sitting there and approached
120 In the Buddha's Words
him. Having paid homage to him, they sat down to one side, and the
Blessed One then said to them:
"Householders, there are these four kinds of marriages. What four?
A wretch lives together with a wretch; a wretch lives together with a
goddess; a god lives together with a wretch; a god lives together with
a goddess.
"And how does a wretch live together with a wretch? Here, house-
holders, the husband is one who destroys life, takes what is not given,
engages in sexual misconduct, speaks falsely, and indulges in wines,
liquor, and intoxicants, the basis for negligence; he is immoral, of bad
character; he dwells at home with a heart obsessed by the stain of
stinginess; he abuses and reviles ascetics and brahmins. And his wife
is exactly the same in all respects. It is in such a way that a wretch lives
together with a wretch.
"And how does a wretch live together with a goddess? Here, house-
holders, the husband is one who destroys life ... who abuses and
reviles ascetics and brahmins. But his wife is one who abstains from the
destruction of life ... from wines, liquor, and intoxicants; she is virtu-
ous, of good character; she dwells at home with a heart free from the
stain of stinginess; she does not abuse or revile ascetics and brahmins.
It is in such a way that a wretch lives together with a goddess.
"And how does a god live together with a wretch? Here, household-
ers, the husband is one who abstains from the destruction of life ...
who does not abuse or revile ascetics and brahmins. But his wife is one
who destroys life ... who abuses and reviles ascetics and brahmins. It
is in such a way that a god lives together with a wretch.
"And how does a god live together with a goddess? Here, house-
holders, the husband is one who abstains from the destruction of life
... from wines, liquor, and intoxicants; he is virtuous, of good charac-
ter; he dwells at home with a heart free from the stain of stinginess; he
does not abuse or revile ascetics and brahmins. And his wife is exactly
the same in all respects. It is in such a way that a god lives together
with a goddess.
"These, householders, are the four kinds of marriages."
(AN 4:53; II57-59)
The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 111
(b) How to Be United in Future Lives
On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling among the Bhagga peo-
ple, near Sumsumaragiri, in the Deer Park of the Bhesakala Grove. One
morning the Blessed One dressed, took his upper robe and bowl, and
went to the dwelling of the householder Nakulapita.
3
Having arrived
there, he sat down on the seat prepared for him. Then the householder
Nakulapita and the housewife Nakulamata approached the Blessed
One and, after paying homage to him, sat down to one side. So seated,
the householder Nakulapita said to the Blessed One:
"Venerable sir, ever since the young housewife Nakulamata was
brought home to me when I too was still young, I am not aware of hav-
ing wronged her even in my thoughts, still less in my deeds. Our wish
is to be in one another's sight so long as this life lasts and in the future
life as well."
Then Nakulamata the housewife addressed the Blessed One thus:
"Venerable sir, ever since I was taken to the home of my young hus-
band Nakulapita, while being a young girl myself, I am not aware of
having wronged him even in my thoughts, still less in my deeds. Our
wish is to be in one another's sight so long as this life lasts and in the
future life as well."
Then the Blessed One spoke thus: "If, householders, both wife and
husband wish to be in one another's sight so long as this life lasts and
in the future life as well, they should have the same faith, the same
moral discipline, the same generosity, the same wisdom; then they will
be in one another's sight so long as this life lasts and in the future life
as well."
When both are faithful and generous,
Self-restrained, of righteous living,
They come together as husband and wife
Full of love for each other.
Many blessings come their way,
They dwell together in happiness,
Their enemies are left dejected,
When both are equal in virtue.
122 In the Buddha's Words
Having lived by Dhamma in this world,
The same in virtue and observance,
They rejoice after death in the deva-world,
Enjoying abundant happiness.
(AN 4:55; II 61-62)
(c) Seven Kinds of Wives
On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at Savatthi in Jeta's
Grove, Anathapindika's monastery. In the morning the Blessed One
dressed, took his bowl and robe, and went to Anathapindika's house,
where he sat down in a seat prepared for him. On that occasion peo-
ple in the house were making an uproar and a racket. The householder
Anathapindika approached the Blessed One, paid homage to him, and
sat down to one side.
4
The Blessed One then said to him: "Why are
people in your house making this uproar and racket, householder?
One would think they were fishermen making a haul of fish."
"That, venerable sir, is our daughter-in-law Sujata. She is rich and
has been brought here from a rich family. She does not obey her father-
in-law and mother-in-law, nor her husband. She does not even honor,
respect, esteem, and venerate the Blessed One."
Then the Blessed One called the daughter-in-law Sujata, saying,
"Come, Sujata."
"Yes, venerable sir," she replied, and she went to the Blessed One,
paid homage to him, and sat down to one side. The Blessed One then
said to her: "There are these seven kinds of wives, Sujata. What seven?
One like a slayer, one like a thief, one like a tyrant, one like a mother,
one like a sister, one like a friend, and one like a handmaid. These are
the seven kinds of wives. Now which of these seven are you?"
"I do not understand in detail the meaning of the Blessed One's brief
statement. It would be good, venerable sir, if the Blessed One would
teach me the Dhamma in such a way that I might understand the
meaning in detail."
"Then listen, Sujata, and attend carefully. I will speak."
"Yes, venerable sir," Sujata replied. The Blessed One said this:
"With hateful mind, cold and heartless,
Lusting for others, despising her husband;
Who seeks to kill the one who bought her
Such a wife is called a slayer.
The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 123
"When her husband acquires wealth
By his craft or trade or farm work,
She tries to filch a little for herself—
Such a wife is called a thief.
"The slothful glutton, bent on idling,
Harsh, fierce, rough in speech,
A woman who bullies her own supporter
Such a wife is called a tyrant.
"One who is always helpful and kind,
Who guards her husband as a mother her son,
Who carefully protects the wealth he earns
Such a wife is called a mother.
"She who holds her husband in high regard
As younger sister holds the elder born,
Who humbly submits to her husband's will
Such a wife is called a sister.
"One who rejoices at her husband's sight
As one friend might welcome another,
Well raised, virtuous, devoted
Such a wife is called a friend.
"One without anger, afraid of punishment,
Who bears with her husband free of hate,
Who humbly submits to her husband's will
Such a wife is called a handmaid.
5
"The types of wives here called a slayer,
A thief, and the wife like a tyrant,
These kinds of wives, with the body's breakup,
Will be reborn deep in hell.
"But wives like mother, sister, friend,
And the wife called a handmaid,
Steady in virtue, long restrained,
With the body's breakup go to heaven.
124 In the Buddha's Words
"These, Sujata, are the seven kinds of wives. Now which of these
are you?"
"Beginning today, venerable sir, you should consider me a wife who
is like a handmaid."
(AN 7:59; IV 91-94)
3. PRESENT WELFARE, FUTURE WELFARE
On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling among the Koliyans
where there was a market town of the Koliyans named Kakkarapatta.
Then the Koliyan family man Dighajanu approached the Blessed One,
paid homage to him, and sat down to one side. So seated, he said to the
Blessed One:
"Venerable sir, we are laypeople who enjoy sensual pleasures,
dwelling at home in a bed crowded with children, enjoying fine san-
dalwood, wearing garlands, scents, and unguents, accepting gold and
silver. Let the Blessed One teach the Dhamma to us in a way that will
lead to our welfare and happiness both in the present life and in the
future life as well."
"There are, Byagghapajja, four things that lead to the welfare and
happiness of a family man in this very life. What four? The accom-
plishment of persistent effort, the accomplishment of protection, good
friendship, and balanced living.
"And what is the accomplishment of persistent effort? Here, Byag-
ghapajja, whatever may be the means by which a family man earns his
living—whether by farming, trade, cattle raising, archery or civil serv-
ice, or by some other craft—he is skillful and diligent; he investigates
the appropriate means, and is able to act and arrange everything prop-
erly. This is called the accomplishment of persistent effort.
"And what is the accomplishment of protection? Here, Byaggha-
pajja, a family man sets up protection and guard over the wealth
acquired by energetic striving, amassed by the strength of his arms,
earned by the sweat of his brow, righteous wealth righteously gained,
thinking: 'How can I prevent kings and bandits from taking this away,
fire from burning it, floods from sweeping it off, and unloved heirs
from taking it?' This is called the accomplishment of protection.
"And what is good friendship? Here, Byagghapajja, in whatever
The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 125
village- or town a family man dwells, he associates with householders
or their sons, whether young or old, who are of mature virtue, accom-
plished in faith, moral discipline, generosity, and wisdom; he converses
with them and engages in discussions with them. He emulates them in
regard to their accomplishment in faith, moral discipline, generosity,
and wisdom. This is called good friendship.
"And what is balanced living? Here, Byagghapajja, a family man
knows his income and expenditures and leads a balanced life, neither
extravagant nor miserly, so that his income exceeds his expenditures
rather than the reverse. Just as a goldsmith or his apprentice, holding
up a scale, knows, 'By so much it has dipped down, by so much it has
tilted up/ so a family man leads a balanced life.
"The wealth thus amassed has four sources of dissipation: woman-
izing, drunkenness, gambling, and evil friendship. Just as in the case
of a tank with four inlets and outlets, if one should close the inlets and
open the outlets, and there would not be adequate rainfall, a decrease
rather than an increase of the water could be expected in the tank, so
these four things bring about the dissipation of amassed wealth.
"Similarly, there are four sources for the increase of amassed wealth:
abstinence from womanizing, from drunkenness, from gambling, and
from evil friendship. Just as in the case of a tank with four inlets and
outlets, if one should open the inlets and close the outlets, and there
would be adequate rainfall, an increase rather than a decrease of the
water could be expected in the tank, so these four things bring about
the increase of amassed wealth.
"These four things, Byagghapajja, lead to a family man's welfare and
happiness in the present life.
"Four other things lead to a family man's welfare and happiness in
the future life. What four? Accomplishment in faith, moral discipline,
generosity, and wisdom.
"And how is a family man accomplished in faith? Here, Byaggha-
pajja, a family man has faith; he places faith in the enlightenment of the
Tathagata: 'So the Blessed One is an arahant, perfectly enlightened,
accomplished in true knowledge and conduct, fortunate, knower of
the world, unsurpassed leader of persons to be tamed, teacher of devas
and humans, the Enlightened One, the Blessed One.' In this way a fam-
ily man is accomplished in faith.
"And how is a family man accomplished in moral discipline? Here,
126 In the Buddha's Words
Byagghapajja, a family man abstains from the destruction of life, from
stealing, from sexual misconduct, from false speech, and from wines,
liquors, and intoxicants, the basis for negligence. In this way a family
man is accomplished in moral discipline.
"And how is a family man accomplished in generosity? Here, Byag-
ghapajja, a family man dwells at home with a mind devoid of the stain
of stinginess, freely generous, open-handed, delighting in relinquish-
ment, one devoted to charity, delighting in giving and sharing. In this
way a family man is accomplished in generosity.
"And how is a family man accomplished in wisdom? Here, Byag-
ghapajja, a family man possesses the wisdom that sees into the arising
and passing away of phenomena, that is noble and penetrative and
leads to the complete destruction of suffering. In this way a family man
is accomplished in wisdom.
"These four things, Byagghapajja, lead to a family man's welfare and
happiness in the future life."
(AN 8:54; IV 281-85)
4. RIGHT LIVELIHOOD
(1) Avoiding Wrong Livelihood
"These five trades, O monks, should not be taken up by a lay follower:
trading in weapons, trading in living beings, trading in meat, trading
in intoxicants, trading in poison."
(AN 5:177; III 208)
(2) The Proper Use of Wealth
[The Blessed One addressed the householder Anathapindika:] "With
the wealth acquired by energetic striving, amassed by the strength of
his arms, earned by the sweat of his brow, righteous wealth righteously
gained, the noble disciple undertakes four worthy deeds. What four?
"With the wealth thus gained he makes himself happy and pleased
and properly maintains himself in happiness; he makes his parents
happy and pleased and properly maintains them in happiness; he
makes his wife and children, his slaves, workers, and servants happy
and pleased and properly maintains them in happiness; he makes his
The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 127
friends and colleagues happy and pleased and properly maintains
them in happiness. This is the first case of wealth gone to good use,
fruitfully applied and used for a worthy cause.
"Further, householder, with the wealth thus gained the noble disci-
ple makes provisions against the losses that might arise on account of
fire and floods, kings and bandits and unloved heirs; he makes him-
self secure against them. This is the second case of wealth gone to
good use....
"Further, householder, with the wealth thus gained the noble disci-
ple makes the five kinds of offerings: to relatives, guests, ancestors, the
king, and the devas. This is the third case of wealth gone to good use....
"Further, householder, with the wealth thus gained the noble disciple
establishes a lofty offering of alms to those ascetics and brahmins who
refrain from vanity and negligence, who are settled in patience and gen-
tleness, who are devoted to taming themselves, to calming themselves,
and to attaining Nibbana—an offering that is heavenly, resulting in hap-
piness, conducive to heaven. This is the fourth case of wealth gone to
good use, fruitfully employed and used for a worthy cause.
"These, householder, are the four worthy deeds that the noble disci-
ple undertakes with the wealth acquired by energetic striving, amassed
by the strength of his arms, earned by the sweat of his brow, righteous
wealth righteously gained.
"For anyone whose wealth is expended on other things apart from
these four worthy deeds, that wealth is said to have gone to waste, to
have been squandered and used frivolously. But for anyone whose
wealth is expended on these four worthy deeds, that wealth is said to
have gone to good use, to have been fruitfully employed and used for
a worthy cause."
(AN 4:61; II 65-68)
(3) A Family Man's Happiness
The Blessed One said to the householder Anathapindika: "There are,
householder, these four kinds of happiness which may be achieved by
a layperson who enjoys sensual pleasures, depending on time and
occasion. What four? The happiness of possession, the happiness of
enjoyment, the happiness of freedom from debt, and the happiness of
blamelessness.
128 In the Buddha's Words
"And what, householder, is the happiness of possession? Here, a
family man possesses wealth acquired by energetic striving, amassed
by the strength of his arms, earned by the sweat of his brow, righteous
wealth righteously gained. When he thinks, 'I possess wealth acquired
by energetic striving ... righteously gained/ he experiences happiness
and joy. This is called the happiness of possession.
"And what, householder, is the happiness of enjoyment? Here, with
the wealth acquired by energetic striving, amassed by the strength of
his arms, earned by the sweat of his brow, righteous wealth right-
eously gained, a family man enjoys his wealth and does meritorious
deeds. When he thinks, 'With the wealth acquired by energetic striv-
ing ... righteously gained, I enjoy my wealth and do meritorious
deeds,' he experiences happiness and joy. This is called the happiness
of enjoyment.
"And what, householder, is the happiness of freedom from debt?
Here, a family man is not indebted to anyone to any degree, whether
small or great. When he thinks, T am not indebted to anyone to any
degree, whether small or great/ he experiences happiness and joy. This
is called the happiness of freedom from debt.
"And what, householder, is the happiness of blamelessness? Here,
householder, a noble disciple is endowed with blameless conduct of
body, speech, and mind. When he thinks, T am endowed with blame-
less conduct of body, speech, and mind/ he experiences happiness and
joy. This is called the happiness of blamelessness.
"These, householder, are the four kinds of happiness that a layper-
son who enjoys sensual pleasures may achieve, depending on time and
occasion."
(AN 4:62; II 69-70)
5. THE WOMAN OF THE HOME
On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at Savatthi in the East-
ern Park, in the Mansion of Migara's Mother. Then Visakha, Migara's
mother, approached the Blessed One, paid homage to him, and sat
down to one side.
6
The Blessed One then said to her:
"Visakha, when a woman possesses four qualities she is heading for
victory in the present world and is successful in this world. What four?
The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 129
"Here, Visakha, a woman is capable at her work; she manages her
domestic help; she behaves in a way that is agreeable to her husband;
and she safeguards his earnings.
"And how is a woman capable at her work? Here, Visakha, she is
skillful and diligent in regard to her husband's household chores,
whether with wool or cotton; she investigates the appropriate means
and is able to act and arrange everything properly. In this way a
woman is capable at her work.
"And how is a woman one who manages the domestic help? Here,
Visakha, in regard to her husband's domestic helpers—slaves, ser-
vants, or workers—she knows by direct inspection what they have
done and failed to do; she knows when they are sick and healthy; and
she distributes to each the appropriate share of food. In this way a
woman manages the domestic help.
"And how does a woman behave in a way that is agreeable to her
husband? Here, Visakha, a woman would not commit any misdeed
that her husband would consider disagreeable, even at the cost of her
life. In this way a woman behaves in a way that is agreeable to her
husband.
"And how does a woman safeguard her husband's earnings? Here,
Visakha, whatever her husband brings home—whether money or
grain, silver or gold—she succeeds in protecting and guarding it, and
she is not a spendthrift, thief, wastrel, or squanderer of his wealth. In
this way a woman safeguards her husband's earnings.
"When, Visakha, a woman possesses these four qualities, she is
heading for victory in the present world and is successful in this
world. But when she possesses four other qualities, she is heading for
victory in the other world and is successful in regard to the other
world. What four?
"Here, Visakha, a woman is accomplished in faith, moral discipline,
generosity, and wisdom.
"And how is a woman accomplished in faith? Here, Visakha, a
woman has faith; she places faith in the enlightenment of the Tathagata
thus: 'So the Blessed One is an arahant... [as in Text IV,3] ... teacher of
devas and humans, the Enlightened One, the Blessed One.' In this way
a woman is accomplished in faith.
"And how is a woman accomplished in moral discipline? Here,
Visakha, a woman abstains from the destruction of life, from stealing,
130 In the Buddha's Words
from sexual misconduct, from false speech, and from wines, liquors,
and intoxicants, the basis for negligence. In this way a woman is
accomplished in moral discipline.
"And how is a woman accomplished in generosity? Here, Visakha,
a woman dwells at home with a mind devoid of the stain of stinginess,
freely generous, open-handed, delighting in relinquishment, one
devoted to charity, delighting in giving and sharing. In this way a
woman is accomplished in generosity.
"And how is a woman accomplished in wisdom? Here, Visakha, a
woman possesses the wisdom that sees into the arising and passing
away of phenomena, that is noble and penetrative and leads to the
complete destruction of suffering.
"When a woman possesses these four qualities, she is heading for
victory in the other world and is successful in regard to the other
world."
(AN 8:49; IV 269-71)
6. THE COMMUNITY
(1) Six Roots of Dispute
6. "There are, Ananda, these six roots of disputes. What six? Here,
Ananda, a monk is angry and resentful. Such a monk dwells without
respect and deference toward the Teacher, the Dhamma, and the
Sahgha, and he does not fulfill the training. A monk who dwells with-
out respect and deference toward the Teacher, the Dhamma, and the
Sahgha, and who does not fulfill the training, creates a dispute in the
Sahgha, which would be for the harm and unhappiness of many, for
the loss, harm, and suffering of devas and humans. Now if you see
any such root of dispute either in yourselves or externally, you should
strive to abandon that same evil root of dispute. And if you do not see
any such root of dispute either in yourselves or externally, you should
practice in such a way that that same evil root of dispute does not erupt
in the future. Thus there is the abandoning of that.evil root of dispute;
thus there is the non-eruption of that evil root of dispute in the future.
7-11. "Again, a monk is contemptuous and insolent... envious and
niggardly ... deceitful and fraudulent ... has evil wishes and wrong
view ... adheres to his own views, holds on to them tenaciously, and
The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 131
relinquishes them with difficulty. Such a monk dwells without respect
and deference toward the Teacher, the Dhamma, and the Sahgha, and
he does not fulfill the training. A monk who dwells without respect
and deference toward the Teacher, the Dhamma, and the Sahgha, and
who does not fulfill the training, creates a dispute in the Sahgha, which
would be for the harm and unhappiness of many, for the loss, harm,
and suffering of devas and humans. Now if you see any such root of
dispute either in yourselves or externally, you should strive to abandon
that same evil root of dispute. And if you do not see any such root of
dispute either in yourselves or externally, you should practice in such
a way that that same evil root of dispute does not erupt in the future.
Thus there is the abandoning of that evil root of dispute; thus there is
the non-eruption of that evil root of dispute in the future. These are
the six roots of dispute."
(from MN 104: Samagama Sutta; II245-47)
(2) Six Principles of Cordiality
21. "Ananda, there are these six principles of cordiality that create love
and respect, and conduce to cohesion, nondispute, concord, and unity.
What are the six?
"Here a monk maintains bodily acts of loving-kindness both in pub-
lic and in private toward his companions in the holy life. This is a prin-
ciple of cordiality that creates love and respect, and conduces to
cohesion, nondispute, concord, and unity.
"Again, a monk maintains verbal acts of loving-kindness both in
public and in private toward his companions in the holy life. This too
is a principle of cordiality that creates love and respect, and conduces
to ... unity.
"Again, a monk maintains mental acts of loving-kindness both in
public and in private toward his companions in the holy life. This too
is a principle of cordiality that creates love and respect, and conduces
to ... unity.
"Again, a monk enjoys things in common with his virtuous com-
panions in the holy life; without making reservations, he shares with
them any righteous gain that has been obtained in a righteous way,
including even the mere content of his alms bowl. This too is a princi-
ple of cordiality that creates love and respect, and conduces to ... unity.
132 In the Buddha's Words
"Again, a monk dwells both in public and in private possessing in
common with his companions in the holy life those virtues that are
unbroken, untorn, unblemished, unmottled, freeing, praised by the
wise, ungrasped, leading to concentration. This too is a principle of
cordiality that creates love and respect and conduces to ... unity.
"Again, a monk dwells both in public and in private possessing in
common with his companions in the holy life that view that is noble
and emancipating, and leads the one who practices in accordance with
it to the complete destruction of suffering. This too is a principle of
cordiality that creates love and respect, and conduces to cohesion, to
nondispute, to concord, and to unity.
"These are the six principles of cordiality that create love and respect,
and conduce to cohesion, to nondispute, to concord, and to unity.
(from MN 104: Samagama Sutta; II250-51)
(3) Purification Is for All Four Castes
1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living at
Savatthi in Jeta's Grove, Anathapindika's Park.
2. Now at that time five hundred brahmins from diverse provinces
were staying at Savatthi for some business or other. Then those brah-
mins thought: "This ascetic Gotama describes purification for all the
four castes. Who is there able to dispute with him about this assertion?"
3. Now on that occasion a brahmin student named Assalayana was
staying at Savatthi. Young, shaven-headed, sixteen years old, he was a
master of the three Vedas with their vocabularies, liturgy, phonology,
and etymology, and the histories as a fifth; skilled in philology and
grammar, he was fully versed in natural philosophy and in the marks
of a great man. So the brahmins thought he would be able to debate
with the Blessed One.
4. They went to the brahmin student Assalayana and said to him:
"Master Assalayana, this ascetic Gotama describes purification for all
the four castes. Let Master Assalayana come and dispute with the asce-
tic Gotama about this assertion."
When this was said, the brahmin student Assalayana replied: "Sirs,
the ascetic Gotama is one who speaks the Dhamma. Now those who
speak the Dhamma are difficult to dispute with. I cannot dispute with
the ascetic Gotama about this assertion."
The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 133
A second time and a third time the brahmins urged him to go. A sec-
ond time the brahmin student Assalayana refused, but after the third
urging he consented.
5. Then the brahmin student Assalayana went with a large number
of brahmins to the Blessed One and exchanged greetings with him.
When this courteous and amiable talk was finished, he sat down at
one side and said to the Blessed One: "Master Gotama, the brahmins
say thus: 'Brahmins are the highest caste, those of any other caste are
inferior; brahmins are the fairest caste, those of any other caste are
dark; only brahmins are purified, not non-brahmins; brahmins alone
are the sons of Brahma, the offspring of Brahma, born of his mouth,
born of Brahma, created by Brahma, heirs of Brahma.' What does Mas-
ter Gotama say about that?"
"Now, Assalayana, the brahmin women are seen having their peri-
ods, becoming pregnant, giving birth, and nursing.
7
And yet those
brahmins, though born from the womb, say thus: 'Brahmins are the
highest caste ... brahmins alone are the sons of Brahma, the offspring
of Brahma, born of his mouth, born of Brahma, created by Brahma,
heirs of Brahma.'"
6. "Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think thus:
'Brahmins are the highest caste ... heirs of Brahma.'"
"What do you think, Assalayana? Have you heard that in Yona and
Kamboja
8
and in other outland countries there are only two castes,
masters and slaves, and that masters become slaves and slaves become
masters?"
"So I have heard, sir."
"Then on the strength of what [argument] or with the support of
what [authority] do the brahmins in this case say thus: 'Brahmins are
the highest caste ... heirs of Brahma'?"
7. "Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think thus:
'Brahmins are the highest caste ... heirs of Brahma.'"
"What do you think, Assalayana? Suppose a khattiya were to kill
living beings, take what is not given, commit sexual misconduct, speak
falsely, speak maliciously, speak harshly, gossip, be covetous, have a
mind of ill will, and hold wrong view. With the breakup of the body,
after death, would only he be reborn in a state of misery, in a bad des-
tination, in the lower world, in hell—and not a brahmin? Suppose a
merchant ... a worker were to kill living beings ... and hold wrong
136 In the Buddha's Words
flame, a color, and a radiance, and it is possible to use all fire for the
purposes of fire."
"Then on the strength of what [argument] or with the support of
what [authority] do the brahmins in this case say thus: 'Brahmins are
the highest caste ... heirs of Brahma'?"
12. "Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think
thus: 'Brahmins are the highest caste ... heirs of Brahma.'"
"What do you think, Assalayana? Suppose a khattiya youth were to
unite with a brahmin girl, and a son was born from their union. Should
a son born from a khattiya youth and a brahmin girl be called a khat-
tiya after the father or a brahmin after the mother?"
"He could be called both, Master Gotama."
13. "What do you think, Assalayana? Suppose a brahmin youth here
were to unite with a khattiya girl, and a son were to be born from their
union. Should the son born from a brahmin youth and a khattiya girl
be called a khattiya after the mother or a brahmin after the father?"
"He could be called both, Master Gotama."
14. "What do you think, Assalayana? Suppose a mare were to be
mated with a male donkey, and a foal were to be born as the result.
Should the foal be called a horse after the mother or a donkey after the
father?"
"It is a mule, Master Gotama, since it does not belong to either kind.
I see the difference in this last case, but I see no difference in either of
the former cases."
15. "What do you think, Assalayana? Suppose there were two brah-
min students who were brothers, born of the same mother, one stu-
dious and intelligent, and one neither studious nor intelligent. Which
of them would brahmins feed first at a funeral feast, or at a ceremonial
offering, or at a sacrificial feast, or at a feast for guests?"
"On such occasions, brahmins would feed first the one who was stu-
dious and intelligent, Master Gotama; for how could what is given to
one who is neither studious nor intelligent bring great fruit?"
16. "What do you think, Assalayana? Suppose there were two brah-
min students who were brothers, born of the same mother, one stu-
dious and intelligent, but immoral and of bad character, and one
neither studious nor intelligent, but virtuous and of good character.
Which of them would brahmins feed first at a funeral feast, or at a cer-
emonial offering, or at a sacrificial feast, or at a feast for guests?"
The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 137
"On such occasions, brahmins would feed first the one who was nei-
ther studious nor intelligent, but virtuous and of good character, Mas-
ter Gotama; for how could what is given to one who is immoral and of
bad character bring great fruit?"
17. "First, Assalayana, you took your stand on birth, and after that
you took your stand on scriptural learning, and after that you have
come to take your stand on the very ground that purification is for all
four castes, as I describe it."
When this was said, the brahmin student Assalayana sat silent and
dismayed, his shoulders drooping and head down, glum and without
response.
(MN 93: Assalayana Sutta, abridged; II147-54)
(4) Seven Principles of Social Stability
1.1. Thus have I heard. Once the Blessed One was staying at Rajagaha
on Mount Vulture Peak. Now just then King Ajatasattu Vedehiputta of
Magadha wanted to attack the Vajjians.
9
He said: "I will strike the
Vajjians who are so powerful and strong, I will cut them off and destroy
them, I will bring them to ruin and destruction!"
1.2. And King Ajatasattu said to his chief minister, the brahmin Vassa-
kara: "Brahmin, go to the Blessed One, worship him with your head to
his feet in my name, ask if he is free from sickness or disease, if he is liv-
ing at ease, vigorously and comfortably, and then say: 'Lord, King
Ajatasattu Vedehiputta of Magadha wishes to attack the Vajjians and
says: "I will strike the Vajjians ... bring them to ruin and destruction!'"
And whatever the Blessed One declares to you, report that faithfully
back to me, for Tathagatas never lie."
1.3. "Very good, Sire," said Vassakara, and having had the state car-
riages harnessed, he mounted one of them and drove in state from
Rajagaha to Vultures' Peak, riding as far as the ground would allow,
then continuing on foot to where the Blessed One was. He exchanged
courtesies with the Blessed One, then sat down to one side and deliv-
ered the king's message.
1.4. Now the Venerable Ananda was standing behind the Blessed
One, fanning him. And the Blessed One said:
(1) "Ananda, have you heard that the Vajjians hold regular and fre-
quent assemblies?"—"I have heard, venerable sir, that they do."
138 In the Buddha's Words
"Ananda, as long as the Vajjians hold regular and frequent assem-
blies, they may be expected to prosper and not decline.
(2) "Have you heard that the Vajjians meet in harmony, break up in
harmony, and carry on their business in harmony?"—"I have heard,
venerable sir, that they do."
"Ananda, as long as the Vajjians meet in harmony, break up in har-
mony, and carry on their business in harmony, they may be expected
to prosper and not decline.
(3) "Have you heard that the Vajjians do not authorize what has not
been authorized already, and do not abolish what has been authorized,
but proceed according to what has been authorized by their ancient
tradition?"—"I have, venerable sir."... (4) "Have you heard that they
honor, respect, revere, and salute the elders among them, and consider
them worth listening to?... (5) that they do not forcibly abduct others'
wives and daughters and compel them to live with them?... (6) that
they honor, respect, revere, and salute the Vajjian shrines at home and
abroad, not withdrawing the proper support made and given
before?... (7) that proper provision is made for the safety of arahants,
so that such arahants may come in future to live there and those
already there may dwell in comfort?"—"I have, Lord."
"Ananda, so long as such proper provision is made ... the Vajjians
may be expected to prosper and not decline."
1.5. Then the Lord said to the brahmin Vassakara: "Once, brahmin,
when I was at the Sarandada Shrine in Vesali, I taught the Vajjians these
seven principles for preventing decline, and as long as they keep to
these seven principles, as long as these principles remain in force, the
Vajjians may be expected to prosper and not decline."
At this, Vassakara replied: "Master Gotama, if the Vajjians keep to
even one of these principles, they may be expected to prosper and not
decline—far less all seven. Certainly the Vajjians will never be con-
quered by King Ajatasattu by force of arms, but only by means of prop-
aganda and setting them against one another. And now, Master
Gotama, I must depart. I am busy and have much to do."
"Brahmin, do as you think fit." Then Vassakara, rejoicing and
delighted at the Blessed One's words, rose from his seat and departed.
1.6. Soon after Vassakara had gone, the Blessed One said: "Ananda,
go to whatever monks there are living around Rajagaha, and summon
them to the assembly hall."
The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 139
"Yes, venerable sir," said Ananda, and he did so. Then he came to the
Blessed One, saluted him, stood to one side, and said: "Venerable sir,
the Sahgha of monks is assembled. Now is the time for the Blessed
One to do as he sees fit." Then the Blessed One rose from his seat, went
to the assembly hall, sat down on the prepared seat, and said: "Monks,
I will teach you seven things that are conducive to welfare. Listen, pay
careful attention, and I will speak."
"Yes, venerable sir," said the monks, and the Blessed One said:
"As long as the monks hold regular and frequent assemblies, they
may be expected to prosper and not decline. As long as they meet in
harmony, break up in harmony, and carry on their business in har-
mony, they may be expected to prosper and not decline. As long as
they do not authorize what has not been authorized already, and do
not abolish what has been authorized, but proceed according to what
has been authorized by the rules of training...; as long as they honor,
respect, revere, and salute the elders of long standing who are long
ordained, fathers and leaders of the order...; as long as they do not fall
prey to the craving that arises in them and leads to rebirth...; as long
as they are devoted to forest-lodgings...; as long as they preserve their
mindfulness regarding the body, so that in future the good among their
companions will come to them, and those who have already come will
feel at ease with them...; as long as the monks hold to these seven
things and are seen to do so, they may be expected to prosper and not
decline."
(from DN 16: Mahaparinibbana Sutta; II72-77)
(5) The Wheel-Turning Monarch
3. "And, after many hundreds and thousands of years, King Dalha-
nemi said to a certain man: 'My good man, whenever you see that the
sacred wheel-treasure has slipped from its position, report it to me.'
'Yes, Sire,' the man replied. And after many hundreds and thousands
of years the man saw that the sacred wheel-treasure had slipped from
its position. Seeing this, he reported the fact to the king. Then King
Dalhanemi sent for his eldest son, the crown prince, and said: 'My son,
the sacred wheel-treasure has slipped from its position. And I have
heard say that when this happens to a wheel-turning monarch, he has
not much longer to live. I have had my fill of human pleasures, now is
140 In the Buddha's Words
the time to seek heavenly pleasures. You, my son, take over control of
this land. I will shave off my hair and beard, put on ochre robes, and
go forth from the household life into homelessness.' And, having
installed his eldest son in due form as king, King Dalhanemi shaved off
his hair and beard, put on ochre robes, and went forth from the house-
hold life into homelessness. And, seven days after the royal sage had
gone forth, the sacred wheel-treasure vanished.
4. "Then a certain man came to the consecrated khattiya king and
said: 'Sire, you should know that the sacred wheel-treasure has disap-
peared.' At this the king was grieved and felt sad. He went to the royal
sage and told him the news. And the royal sage said to him: 'My son,
you should not grieve or feel sad at the disappearance of the wheel-
treasure. The wheel-treasure is not an heirloom from your fathers. But
now, my son, you must turn yourself into a noble wheel-turner. And
then it may come about that, if you perform the duties of a noble
wheel-turning monarch, on the uposatha day of the fifteenth,
10
when
you have washed your head and gone up to the verandah on top of
your palace for the uposatha day, the sacred wheel-treasure will appear
to you, thousand-spoked, complete with rim, hub, and all accessories.'
5. "'But what, Sire, is the duty of a noble wheel-turning monarch?'
'It is this, my son: Yourself depending on the Dhamma, honoring it,
revering it, cherishing it, doing homage to it, and venerating it, having
the Dhamma as your badge and banner, acknowledging the Dhamma
as your master, you should establish righteous guard, ward, and pro-
tection for your own household, your troops, your khattiyas and vas-
sals, for brahmins and householders, town and country folk, ascetics
and brahmins, for beasts and birds. Let no crime prevail in your king-
dom, and to those who are in need, give wealth. And whatever asce-
tics and brahmins in your kingdom have renounced the life of sensual
infatuation and are devoted to forbearance and gentleness, each one
taming himself, each one calming himself, and each one striving for the
end of craving, from time to time you should approach them and ask:
"What, venerable sirs, is wholesome and what is unwholesome, what
is blameworthy and what is blameless, what is to be followed and what
is not to be followed? What action will in the long run lead to harm and
sorrow, and what to welfare and happiness?"
11
Having listened to
them, you should avoid what is unwholesome and do what is whole-
some. That, my son, is the duty of a noble wheel-turning monarch.'
The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 141
"'Yes, Sire,' said the king, and he performed the duties of a noble
wheel-turning monarch. And as he did so, on the uposatha day of the
fifteenth, when he had washed his head and gone up to the verandah
on top of his palace for the uposatha day, the sacred wheel-treasure
appeared to him, thousand-spoked, complete with rim, hub, and all
accessories. Then the king thought: T have heard that when a duly
anointed khattiya king sees such a wheel on the uposatha day of the fif-
teenth, he will become a wheel-turning monarch. May I become such
a monarch?'
6. "Then, rising from his seat, covering one shoulder with his robe,
the king took a gold vessel in his left hand, sprinkled the wheel with his
right hand, and said: 'May the noble wheel-treasure turn, may the noble
wheel-treasure conquer!' The wheel turned to the east, and the king fol-
lowed it with his fourfold army. And in whatever country the wheel
stopped, the king took up residence with his fourfold army. And those
who opposed him in the eastern region came and said: 'Come, Your
Majesty, welcome. We are yours, Your Majesty. Rule us, Your Majesty.'
And the king said: 'Do not take life. Do not take what is not given. Do
not commit sexual misconduct. Do not tell lies. Do not drink intoxicat-
ing drinks. Enjoy your possessions as before.'
12
And those who had
opposed him in the eastern region became his subjects.
7. "Then the wheel turned south, west, and north ... [as section 6] ...
Then the wheel-treasure, having conquered the lands from sea to sea,
returned to the royal capital and stopped before the king's palace as he
was trying a case, as if to adorn the royal palace."
(from DN 26: Cakkavatti-Sihanada Sutta; III 59-63)
(6) Bringing Tranquillity to the Land
9. Sitting to one side, the brahmin Kutadanta addressed the Blessed
One: "Master Gotama, I have heard that you understand how to con-
duct successfully the triple sacrifice with its sixteen requisites. Now I
do not understand all this, but I want to make a big sacrifice. It would
be good if Master Gotama would explain this to me."
"Then listen, brahmin, pay proper attention, and I will explain."
"Yes, sir," replied Kutadanta, and the Blessed One continued:
10. "Brahmin, once upon a time there was a king called Mahavijita.
He was rich, of great wealth and resources, with an abundance of gold
142 In the Buddha's Words
and silver, of possessions and requisites, of money and money's worth,
with a full treasury and granary. And when King Mahavijita was
reflecting in private, the thought came to him: 'I have acquired exten-
sive wealth in human terms, I occupy a wide extent of land which I
have conquered. Let me now make a great sacrifice that would be to
my benefit and happiness for a long time.' And calling his chaplain,"
he told him his thought. 'I want to make a great sacrifice. Instruct me,
venerable sir, how this may be to my lasting benefit and happiness.'
11. "The chaplain replied: 'Your Majesty's country is beset by thieves.
It is ravaged; villages and towns are being destroyed; the countryside
is infested with brigands. If Your Majesty were to tax this region, that
would be the wrong thing to do. Suppose Your Majesty were to think:
"I will get rid of this plague of robbers by executions and imprison-
ment, or by confiscation, threats, and banishment," the plague would
not be properly ended. Those who survived would later harm Your
Majesty's realm. However, with this plan you can completely elimi-
nate the plague. To those in the kingdom who are engaged in cultivat-
ing crops and raising cattle, let Your Majesty distribute grain and
fodder; to those in trade, give capital; to those in government service
assign proper living wages. Then those people, being intent on their
own occupations, will not harm the kingdom. Your Majesty's revenues
will be great; the land will be tranquil and not beset by thieves; and the
people, with joy in their hearts, playing with their children, will dwell
in open houses.'
"And saying: 'So be it!,' the king accepted the chaplain's advice: he
gave grain and fodder to those engaged in cultivating crops and rais-
ing cattle, capital to those in trade, proper living wages to those in gov-
ernment service. Then those people, being intent on their own
occupations, did not harm the kingdom. The king's revenues became
great; the land was tranquil and not beset by thieves; and the people,
with joy in their hearts, playing with their children, dwelled in open
houses."
(from DN 5: Kutadanta Sutta; 1134-36)
INTRODUCTION
In his account of his "noble quest/' the Buddha says that when he
gazed out upon the world soon after his enlightenment, he saw that
sentient beings are like lotus flowers at various stages of growth within
a pond (see p. 71). While some beings are like lotuses at or near the
surface of the pond, capable of awakening merely by being exposed to
his world-transcending teachings, the vast majority of people who
encounter the Dhamma are like the lotuses growing deep below the
surface. These lotuses benefit from the sunlight and use its energy to
sustain their life, yet still need time to reach the surface and blossom.
So too, the great multitude of people who hear the Buddha's teachings
and establish faith must still nurture their wholesome qualities with
the radiant energy of the Dhamma before their mindstreams become
mature enough to attain direct realization. This process ordinarily
requires many lives, and thus such people have to take a long-term
approach to their spiritual development. While practicing the way to
liberation, they must avoid a rebirth in the unfortunate realms and win
successive rebirths blessed with material security, happiness, and
opportunities for further spiritual progress.
These benefits, the enhancing conditions for spiritual development in
the Dhamma, come about by the acquisition of punna or "merit," a word
that signifies the capacity of wholesome action to yield beneficial results
within the cycle of rebirths. According to the Buddha's teaching, the
cosmos, with its many realms of sentient existence, is governed at all
levels by immutable laws, physical, biological, psychological, and eth-
ical. The process by which sentient beings migrate from one state of
existence to another is likewise lawful. It is regulated by a law that
Works in two principal ways: first, it connects our actions with a partic-
ular realm of rebirth that corresponds to our actions; and second, it
determines the relations between our actions and the quality of our
experience within the particular realm into which we have been reborn.
The governing factor in this process, the factor that makes the entire
process a lawful one, is a force called kamma (Skt: karma). The word
145
146 In the Buddha's Words
"kamma" literally means action, but technically it refers to volitional
action. As the Buddha says: "It is volition (cetana) that I call kamma; for
having willed (cetayitva), one acts by body, speech, and mind."
1
Kamma
thus denotes deeds that originate from volition. Such volition may
remain purely mental, generating mental kamma that occurs as
thoughts, plans, and desires; or it may come to expression outwardly
through manifest bodily and verbal actions.
It may seem that our deeds, once performed, perish and vanish
without leaving behind any traces apart from their visible impact on
other people and our environment. However, according to the
Buddha, all morally determinate volitional actions create a potential
to bring forth results (vipaka) or fruits (phala) that correspond to the
ethical quality of those actions. This capacity of our deeds to produce
the morally appropriate results is what is meant by kamma. Our deeds
generate kamma, a potential to produce fruits that correspond to
their own intrinsic tendencies. Then, when internal and external con-
ditions are suitable, the kamma ripens and produces the appropriate
fruits. In ripening, the kamma rebounds upon us for good or for harm
depending on the moral quality of the original action. This may hap-
pen either later in the same life in which the action was done, in the
next life, or in some distant future life.
2
The one thing that is certain
is that as long as we remain within samsara any stored-up kamma of
ours will be capable of ripening so long as it has not yet produced its
due results.
On the basis of its ethical quality, the Buddha distinguishes kamma
into two major categories: the unwholesome (akusala) and the whole-
some (kusala). Unwholesome kamma is action that is spiritually detri-
mental to the agent, morally reprehensible, and potentially productive
of an unfortunate rebirth and painful results. The criterion for judging
an action to be unwholesome is its underlying motives, the "roots" from
which it springs. There are three unwholesome roots: greed, hatred, and
delusion. From these there arises a wide variety of secondary defile-
ments—states such as anger, hostility, envy, selfishness, arrogance,
pride, presumption, and laziness—and from the root defilements and
secondary defilements arise defiled actions.
Wholesome kamma, on the other hand, is action that is spiritually
beneficial and morally commendable; it is action that ripens in happi-
ness and good fortune. Its underlying motives are the three wholesome
The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 147
roots: nongreed, nonhatred, and nondelusion, which may be
expressed more positively as generosity, loving-kindness, and wis-
dom. Whereas actions springing from the unwholesome roots are nec-
essarily bound to the world of repeated birth and death, actions
springing from the wholesome roots may be of two kinds, mundane
and world-transcending. The mundane (lokiya) wholesome actions
have the potential to produce a fortunate rebirth and pleasant results
within the round of rebirths. The world-transcending or supramun-
dane (lokuttara) wholesome actions—namely, the kamma generated
by developing the Noble Eightfold Path and the other aids to enlight-
enment—lead to enlightenment and to liberation from the round of
rebirths. This is the kamma that dismantles the entire process of
karmic causation.
The correlation between kamma and its results is indicated in a gen-
eral way in Text V,l(l). This sutta refers to unwholesome action as
"dark kamma" and mundane wholesome action as "bright kamma."
It also refers to a type of kamma that is both dark and bright. Strictly
speaking, this does not denote a single action that simultaneously par-
takes of both unwholesome and wholesome characteristics; techni-
cally such a thing is impossible, for an action must be one or the other.
The combined kamma refers to the conduct of a person who intermit-
tently engages in both unwholesome and wholesome behavior.
Finally, the sutta speaks of a fourth type of kamma that is neither dark
nor bright. This is the action of developing the Noble Eightfold Path,
the wholesome world-transcending kamma.
It cannot be emphasized strongly enough that for Early Buddhism an
understanding and acceptance of this principle of kamma and its fruit
is an essential component of right view. Right view has two aspects, the
world-bound or mundane aspect, which pertains to life within the
world, and the supramundane or world-transcending aspect, which
pertains to the path to liberation.
3
The world-transcending right view
includes an understanding of the Four Noble Truths, dependent origi-
nation, and the three marks of impermanence, suffering, and nonself.
For Early Buddhism this world-transcending right view cannot be
taken up in isolation from mundane right view. Rather, it presupposes
and depends upon the sound support of mundane right view, which
means a firm conviction in the validity of the law of kamma and its
unfolding through the process of rebirths.
148 In the Buddha's Words
To accept the law of kamma entails a radical transformation in our
understanding of our relationship to the world. The twin doctrines of
kamma and rebirth enable us to see that the world in which we live is,
in important respects, an external reflection of the internal cosmos of
the mind. This does not mean that the external world can be reduced
to a mental projection in the way proposed by certain types of philo-
sophical idealism. However, taken in conjunction, these two doctrines
do show that the conditions under which we live closely correspond
to the karmic tendencies of our minds. The reason why a living being
is reborn into a particular realm is because in a previous life that being
has generated the kamma, or volitional action, that leads to rebirth
into that realm. Thus, in the final analysis, all the realms of existence
have been formed, fashioned, and sustained by the mental activity of
living beings. As the Buddha says: "For beings obstructed by igno-
rance and hindered by craving, kamma is the field, consciousness the
seed, and craving the moisture, for consciousness to be established in
a new realm of existence—either inferior, middling, or superior" (AN
3:76; I 223).
4
The next selection, Text V,l(2), draws a finer distinction among the
types of unwholesome and wholesome kamma. The text enumerates
ten primary instances of each class. Here they are called respectively
"unrighteous conduct, conduct not in accordance with the Dhamma"
and "righteous conduct, conduct in accordance with the Dhamma" but
they are usually known as the ten pathways of unwholesome and
wholesome kamma.
5
The ten are subdivided by way of the three
"doors of action"—body, speech, and mind. Taking the unwholesome
first, there are three kinds of bodily misconduct: killing, stealing, and
sexual misconduct; four kinds of verbal misconduct: lying, malicious
speech, harsh speech, and idle chatter (or gossip); and three kinds of
mental misconduct: covetousness, ill will, and wrong view. The ten
courses of wholesome action are their exact opposites: abstinence from
the three kinds of bodily misconduct; abstinence from the four kinds
of verbal misconduct; and noncovetousness, goodwill, and right view.
According to the sutta, the ten types of unwholesome kamma are the
reason that beings are reborn in the bad destinations after death; the
ten types of wholesome kamma are the reason that beings are reborn
in the good destinations after death. As the sutta shows, the ten types
of wholesome kamma are the support, not only for a heavenly rebirth,
The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 149
but also for "the destruction of the taints," the attainment of liberation.
The concluding paragraphs of this sutta give us a brief survey of
Buddhist cosmology. The Buddhist cosmos is divided into three broad
realms—the sense-sphere realm (kamadhatu), the form realm (rupa-
dhatu), and the formless realm (ariipadhatu)—each comprising a range
of subsidiary planes.
The sense-sphere realm, our realm, is so called because the beings
reborn here are strongly driven by sensual desire. The realm is divided
into two levels, the bad destinations and the good destinations. The
bad destinations or "states of misery" (apaya) are three in number: the
hells, states of intense torment (see MN 129 and 130, not included in
this anthology); the animal kingdom; and the sphere of spirits (petti-
visaya), beings afflicted with incessant hunger, thirst, and other suffer-
ings. These are the realms of retribution for the ten unwholesome paths
of kamma.
6
The good destinations in the sense-sphere realm are the human
world and the six sensual heavenly planes. The latter are: the devas in
the heaven of the Four Great Kings, who are presided over by four
powerful devas (namely, the Four Great Kings); the Tavatimsa devas
presided over by Sakka, a devotee of the Buddha who is faithful but
prone to negligence (see the Sakkasamyutta, SN chapter 11); the Yama
devas; the devas of the Tusita heaven, the abode of a bodhisatta before
his final birth; the Nimmanarati devas ("the gods who delight in cre-
ating"); and the Paranimmitavasavatti devas ("the gods who control
what is created by others"). The karmic cause for rebirth into the good
destinations of the sense-sphere realm is the practice of the ten courses
of wholesome action.
In the form realm the grosser types of material form are absent. Its
denizens, known as brahmas, enjoy bliss, power, luminosity, and vital-
ity far superior to the beings in the sense-sphere realm. The form realm
consists of sixteen planes. These are the objective counterparts of the
four jhanas. Attainment of the first jhana leads to rebirth among
Brahma's assembly, the ministers of Brahma, and the Mahabrahmas,
according to whether it is developed to an inferior, middling, or supe-
rior degree. The second jhana, attained in the same three degrees, leads
respectively to rebirth among the devas of limited radiance, of meas-
ureless radiance, and of streaming radiance. The third jhana, attained
in the same three degrees, leads respectively to rebirth among the
150 In the Buddha's Words
devas of limited glory, of measureless glory, and of refulgent glory. The
fourth jhana ordinarily leads to rebirth among the devas of great fruit,
but if developed with a feeling of disgust for perception, it will con-
duce to rebirth among the "nonpercipient beings," beings who lack
perception. The form realm also comprises five planes reserved exclu-
sively for the rebirth of nonreturners (see pp. 379-80), called the pure
abodes: aviha, atappa, sudassa, sudassi, and akanittha. In each of the sub-
tle form planes, the lifespan is said to be of enormous duration and to
increase significantly with each higher plane.
7
In the third realm of existence, material form is nonexistent and bare
mental processes exist; hence it is called the formless realm. This realm
consists of four planes, which are the objective counterparts of the
four formless meditative attainments, after which they are named: the
base of the infinity of space, the base of the infinity of consciousness,
the base of nothingness, and the base of neither-perception-nor-non-
perception. The lifespans ascribed to these realms are respectively
20,000; 40,000; 60,000; and 84,000 great eons. (For the duration of one
eon, see Text 1,4(3).)
For Buddhist cosmology, existence in every realm, being the product
of a kamma with a finite potency, is necessarily impermanent. Beings
take rebirth into a realm appropriate for their kamma or deeds, expe-
rience the good or bad results, and then, when the generative kamma
has spent its force, they pass away to take rebirth elsewhere as deter-
mined by still another kamma that has found the opportunity to ripen.
Hence the torments of hell as well as the joys of heaven, no matter how
long they may last, are bound to pass. The Buddha guides those whose
spiritual faculties are still tender to aspire for a human or heavenly
rebirth and teaches them the lines of conduct that conduce to the ful-
fillment of their aspirations. But he urges those with mature faculties
to make a determined effort to put an end to the aimless wandering of
samsara and reach the Deathless, Nibbana, which transcends all con-
ditioned planes of being.
While the first two texts in this chapter establish a general correla-
tion between kamma and spheres of rebirth, Text V,l(3) specifies the
underlying karmic causes for the manifest differences in human life.
It does so with reference to a well-known saying of the Buddha:
"Beings are owners of their kamma, heirs of their kamma; they orig-
inate from their kamma, are bound to their kamma, have their
The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 151
kamma as their refuge. It is kamma that distinguishes beings as infe-
rior and superior." The sutta proposes to explain this statement with
regard to seven pairs of contrasting qualities observed among people.
This text also introduces a distinction between two types of conse-
quences that an unwholesome kamma can have: the more powerful
is rebirth in a bad destination; the other is unpleasant fruits within the
human state, for example, a short lifespan for one who in an earlier
life killed living beings. An analogous distinction obtains among the
consequences that a wholesome kamma can have: the more power-
ful is rebirth in a heavenly world; the other is pleasant fruits within
the human state.
The next section deals with merit (punna), wholesome kamma capa-
ble of yielding favorable results within the cycle of rebirths. Merit pro-
duces mundane benefits, such as a good rebirth, wealth, beauty, and
success. It also serves as an enhancing condition for supramundane
benefits, that is, for attaining the stages along the path to enlighten-
ment. Hence, as seen in Text V,2(l), the Buddha urges his disciples to
cultivate merit, referring to his own cultivation of merit over many
previous lives as an example.
The Nikayas concisely organize the types of merit into three "bases
of meritorious deeds" (punnakiriyavatthu): giving, moral discipline,
and meditation. Text V,2(2) connects the bases of merit with the types
of rebirth to which they lead. In the Indian religious context, the prac-
tice of meritorious deeds revolves around faith in certain objects
regarded as sacred and spiritually empowering, capable of serving as
a support for the acquisition of merit. For followers of the Buddha's
teaching these are the Three Jewels: the Buddha, the Dhamma, and
the Sahgha. Text V,2(3) extols these as each supreme in its particular
sphere: the Buddha is supreme among persons, the Dhamma among
teachings, and the Sahgha among religious communities. The text pro-
poses an interesting twofold distinction of the Dhamma Jewel: among
all conditioned things (dhamma sankhata), the Noble Eightfold Path is
supreme; among all things conditioned or unconditioned (dhamma
sankhata va asankhata va), Nibbana is supreme. Merely having confi-
dence in the Three Jewels, that is, reverential trust and devotion
toward them, is itself a basis of merit; but as the verses attached to
the sutta make clear, the Buddha and the Sahgha additionally function
as the recipients of gifts, and in this role they further enable donors to
152 In the Buddha's Words
acquire merit leading to the fulfillment of their virtuous wishes. More
will be said about this aspect of merit just below.
The following sections of this chapter elaborate on the three bases of
merit individually, beginning in section 3 with giving or generosity
(dana). The Buddha often treated giving as the most rudimentary virtue
of the spiritual life, for giving serves to break down the egocentric
frame of mind on the basis of which we habitually interact with others.
Contrary to what a Western reader might expect, however, "giving" for
Early Buddhism does not mean simply philanthropic charity directed
toward the poor and disadvantaged. While it includes this, the practice
of giving has a more context-specific meaning rooted in the social
structure of Indian religiosity. In India during the Buddha's time, those
who sought to fathom the deepest truths of existence and attain release
from the round of birth and death usually renounced home and fam-
ily, relinquished their secure place in the cohesive Indian social order,
and adopted the precarious life of the homeless wanderer. With shaved
heads or matted locks, clad in ochre or white robes or going naked,
they would move from place to place without fixed abode, except dur-
ing the three months of the rainy season, when they would settle in
simple huts, caves, or other lodgings. Such homeless wanderers,
known as samanas ("ascetics") or paribbajakas ("wanderers"), did not
perform any remunerative services but depended upon the charity of
householders for their livelihood. The lay devotees provided them
with their material requisites—robes, food, lodgings, and medicines
doing so in the confidence that such services were a source of merit
that would help them advance a few steps farther in the direction of
final emancipation.
When the Buddha appeared on the scene, he adopted this mode of
life for himself. Once he commenced his work as a spiritual teacher, he
established his Sahgha on the same principle: the bhikkhus and
bhikkhunis, the monks and nuns, would depend on the charity of oth-
ers for their material support, and they would reciprocate by offering
their donors the more precious gift of the Dhamma, the teaching of the
lofty path that leads to happiness, peace, and final liberation. Text
V,3(5) testifies to this principle of mutual support. By accepting the
gifts of lay people, the monastics give them the opportunity to acquire
merit. Since the volume of merit generated by the act of giving is con-
sidered to be proportional to the worthiness of the recipient, when the
The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 153
recipients are the Buddha and those following in his footsteps, the
merit becomes immeasurable (see MN 142, not included in this anthol-
ogy). For this reason, the savakasangha, the spiritual community of
noble disciples, is called "the unsurpassed field of merit for the world"
(anuttaram punnakhettam lokassa).* Gifts to the Sahgha, it is said, con-
duce to great blessings; they lead to one's welfare and happiness for a
long time and can bring rebirth in the heavenly worlds. But as Text
V,3(6) reminds us, this is true "only for the morally pure, not for the
immoral."
This leads to the next base of merit, "moral discipline" (slid), which
for Early Buddhism requires the undertaking of precepts. The most
basic moral guidelines inculcated in the Nikayas are the five precepts,
the training rules to abstain from taking life, stealing, sexual miscon-
duct, false speech, and the use of intoxicants. These are mentioned in
Text V,4(l), which, by an interesting twist in terminology, speaks of
them as "pristine, traditional, ancient gifts," thus implicitly subsum-
ing slla under dana. The reason the observance of precepts is a form of
giving is because one who undertakes precepts will be "giving to
immeasurable beings freedom from fear, hostility, and oppression,"
and as a karmic consequence "he himself will enjoy immeasurable free-
dom from fear, hostility, and oppression."
While the Buddha enjoins observance of the five precepts upon lay
followers as a full-time obligation, he recommends a more stringent
type of moral practice for the uposatha, the observance days deter-
mined by the lunar calendar: the full-moon day, the new-moon day,
and the two half-moon days. (Of the four, in Buddhist countries today
it is the full-moon day that is given priority.) On these occasions,
devout lay Buddhists undertake eight precepts: the usual five, but with
the third changed to complete sexual abstinence, augmented by three
other precepts that emulate the training rules of a novice monk or nun.
The eight precepts, enumerated in Text V,4(2), augment the training in
sila as a moral observance with a training in self-restraint, simplicity,
and contentment. In this respect they prepare the disciple for the train-
ing of the mind undertaken in the practice of meditation, the third base
of merit.
The practice of meditation is not only the heart of the path to liber-
ation but a source of merit in its own right. Wholesome meditation
practices, even those that do not directly lead to insight, help to purify
154 In the Buddha's Words
the grosser levels of mental defilement and uncover deeper dimen-
sions of the mind's potential purity and radiance. Text V,5(l) declares
that the type of meditation that is most fruitful for the production of
mundane merit is the development of loving-kindness (mettabhavana).
The practice of loving-kindness, however, is only one among a set of
four meditations called the "divine abodes" (brahmavihara) or "immeas-
urable states" (appamanna): the development of loving-kindness, com-
passion, altruistic joy, and equanimity, which are to be extended
boundlessly to all sentient beings. Briefly, loving-kindness (metta) is the
wish for the welfare and happiness of all beings; compassion (karuna),
the feeling of empathy for all those afflicted with suffering; altruistic
joy {mudita), the feeling of happiness at the success and good fortune of
others; and equanimity (upekkha), a balanced reaction to joy and misery,
which protects one from emotional agitation.
These meditations are said to be the means to rebirth in the brahma
world; see Text V,5(2). While the brahmins regarded the brahma world
as the highest attainment, for the Buddha it was just one exalted sphere
of rebirth. The concentration arisen from these meditations, however,
can also be used as a basis for cultivating the wisdom of insight, and
insight culminates in liberation. Text V,5(3), the last selection of this
chapter, thus grades the different types of merit according to their
fruits: from giving (with the various kinds of gifts ranked according to
the spiritual status of the recipients) through the going for refuge and
the five precepts to the meditation on loving-kindness. Then, at the
very end, it declares that the most fruitful deed among them all is the
perception of impermanence. The perception of impermanence, how-
ever, belongs to a different order. It is so fruitful not because it yields
pleasant mundane results within the round of rebirths, but because it
leads to the wisdom of insight that cuts the chains of bondage and
brings the realization of complete emancipation, Nibbana.
V. THE WAY TO A FORTUNATE REBIRTH
X. THE LAW OF KAMMA
(1) Four Kinds of Kamma
"There are, O monks, these four kinds of kamma declared by me after
I had realized them for myself by direct knowledge. What four?
"There is dark kamma with dark results; there is bright kamma with
bright results; there is kamma that is dark and bright with dark and
bright results; there is kamma that is neither dark nor bright, with nei-
ther dark nor bright results, which leads to the destruction of kamma.
"And what, monks, is dark kamma with dark results? Here, monks,
someone generates an afflictive volitional formation of body, speech, or
mind. Having done so, he is reborn in an afflictive world. When he is
reborn in an afflictive world, afflictive contacts touch him. Being
touched by afflictive contacts, he experiences an afflictive feeling,
extremely painful, as for example the beings in hell experience. This is
called dark kamma with dark results.
"And what, monks, is bright kamma with bright results? Here,
monks, someone generates a non-afflictive volitional formation of
body, speech, or mind. Having done so, he is reborn in a non-afflictive
world. When he is reborn in a non-afflictive world, non-afflictive con-
tacts touch him. Being touched by non-afflictive contacts, he experi-
ences a non-afflictive feeling, extremely pleasant, as for example the
devas of refulgent glory experience.
9
This is called bright kamma with
bright results.
"And what, monks, is dark and bright kamma with dark and bright
results? Here, monks, someone generates both an afflictive volitional
formation of body, speech, or mind and a non-afflictive volitional for-
mation of body, speech, or mind. Having done so, he is reborn in a
world that is both afflictive and non-afflictive. When he is reborn in
such a world, both afflictive and non-afflictive contacts touch him.
Being touched by such contacts, he experiences both an afflictive feel-
ing and a non-afflictive feeling, a mixture and conglomeration of
155
156 In the Buddha's Words
pleasure and pain, as for example human beings and some devas and
some beings in the lower world experience. This is called dark and
bright kamma with dark and bright results.
"And what, monks, is kamma that is neither dark nor bright, with
neither dark nor bright results, which leads to the destruction of
kamma? The volition to abandon this dark kamma with dark results,
and to abandon the bright kamma with bright results, and to abandon
the dark and bright kamma with dark and bright results—this is called
the kamma that is neither dark nor bright, with neither dark nor bright
results, which leads to the destruction of kamma.
10
"These, monks, are the four kinds of kamma declared by me after I
had realized them for myself by direct knowledge."
(AN 4:232; II230-32)
(2) Why Beings Fare as They Do After Death
1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was wandering
by stages in the Kosalan country with a large Sahgha of monks, and
eventually he arrived at a Kosalan brahmin village named Sala.
2. The brahmin householders of Sala heard: "It is said that the ascetic
Gotama, the Sakyan son who went forth from a Sakyan clan, has been
wandering in the Kosalan country with a large Sahgha of monks and
has come to Sala. Now a good report of Master Gotama has been circu-
lating thus: That Blessed One is an arahant... [as in Text 111,2] ... that is
perfectly complete and purified.' Now it is good to see such arahants."
3. Then the brahmin householders of Sala went to the Blessed One.
Some paid homage to him and sat down to one side; some exchanged
greetings with him and, after their greetings and cordial talk, sat down
to one side; some saluted him reverentially and sat down to one side;
some remained silent and sat down to one side.
4. When they were seated, they said to the Blessed One: "Master
Gotama, what is the cause and condition why some beings here, on
the breakup of the body, after death, are reborn in a state of misery, in
a bad destination, in the lower world, in hell? And what is the cause
and condition why some beings here, on the breakup of the body, after
death, are reborn in a good destination, in a heavenly world?"
5. "Householders, it is by reason of unrighteous conduct, conduct
not in accordance with the Dhamma, that some beings here, on the
The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 157
breakup of the body, after death, are reborn in a state of misery, in a bad
destination, in the lower world, in hell. It is by reason of righteous con-
duct, conduct in accordance with the Dhamma, that some beings here,
on the breakup of the body, after death, are reborn in a good destina-
tion, in a heavenly world."
6. "We do not understand the detailed meaning of Master Gotama's
statement, which he has spoken in brief without expounding the
detailed meaning. It would be good if Master Gotama would teach us
the Dhamma so that we might understand the detailed meaning of his
statement."
"Then, householders, listen and attend closely to what I shall say."
"Yes, venerable sir," they replied. The Blessed One said this:
7. "Householders, there are three kinds of unrighteous bodily con-
duct, conduct not in accordance with the Dhamma. There are four
kinds of unrighteous verbal conduct, conduct not in accordance with
the Dhamma. There are three kinds of unrighteous mental conduct,
conduct not in accordance with the Dhamma.
8. "And how, householders, are there three kinds of unrighteous
bodily conduct, conduct not in accordance with the Dhamma? Here
someone kills living beings; he is murderous, bloody-handed, given
to blows and violence, merciless to living beings. He takes what is not
given; he takes by way of theft the wealth and property of others in the
village or forest. He commits sexual misconduct; he has intercourse
with women who are protected by their mother, father, mother and
father, brother, sister, or relatives, who have a husband, who are pro-
tected by law, and even with those already engaged. That is how there
are three kinds of unrighteous bodily conduct, conduct not in accor-
dance with the Dhamma.
9. "And how, householders, are there four kinds of unrighteous ver-
bal conduct, conduct not in accordance with the Dhamma? Here
someone speaks falsehood; when summoned to a court, or to a meet-
ing, or to his relatives' presence, or to his guild, or to the royal family's
presence, and questioned as a witness thus: 'So, good man, tell what
you know,' not knowing, he says, T know,' or knowing, he says, T do
not know'; not seeing, he says, T see,' or seeing, he says, T do not see';
in full awareness he speaks falsehood for his own ends, or for
another's ends, or for some trifling worldly end. He speaks mali-
ciously; he repeats elsewhere what he has heard here in order to
158 In the Buddha's Words
divide [those people] from these, or he repeats to these people what he
has heard elsewhere in order to divide [these people] from those; thus
he is one who divides those who are united, a creator of divisions, who
enjoys discord, rejoices in discord, delights in discord, a speaker of
words that create discord. He speaks harshly; he utters such words as
are rough, hard, hurtful to others, offensive to others, bordering on
anger, not conducive to concentration. He engages in idle chatter; he
speaks at the wrong time, speaks what is not fact, speaks what is use-
less, speaks contrary to the Dhamma and the Discipline; at the wrong
time he speaks such words as are worthless, unreasonable, immoder-
ate, and unbeneficial. That is how there are four kinds of unrighteous
verbal conduct, conduct not in accordance with the Dhamma.
10. "And how, householders, are there three kinds of unrighteous
mental conduct, conduct not in accordance with the Dhamma? Here
someone is covetous; he covets the wealth and property of others thus:
'Oh, may what belongs to another be mine!' Or he has a mind of ill
will and intentions of hate thus: 'May these beings be slain and slaugh-
tered, may they be cut off, perish, or be annihilated!' Or he has wrong
view, distorted vision, thus: 'There is nothing given, nothing offered,
nothing sacrificed; no fruit or result of good and bad actions; no this
world, no other world; no mother, no father; no beings who are reborn
spontaneously; no good and virtuous ascetics and brahmins in the
world who have themselves realized by direct knowledge and declare
this world and the other world.'
11
That is how there are three kinds of
unrighteous mental conduct, conduct not in accordance with the
Dhamma. So, householders, it is by reason of such unrighteous con-
duct, such conduct not in accordance with the Dhamma, that some
beings here on the breakup of the body, after death, are reborn in a
state of misery, in a bad destination, in the lower world, in hell.
11. "Householders, there are three kinds of righteous bodily con-
duct, conduct in accordance with the Dhamma. There are four kinds of
righteous verbal conduct, conduct in accordance with the Dhamma.
There are three kinds of righteous mental conduct, conduct in accor-
dance with the Dhamma.
12. "And how, householders, are there three kinds of righteous bod-
ily conduct, conduct in accordance with the Dhamma? Here someone,
abandoning the destruction of life, abstains from the destruction of life;
with rod and weapon laid aside, conscientious, merciful, he dwells
The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 159
compassionate to all living beings. Abandoning the taking of what is
not given, he abstains from taking what is not given; he does not take
by way of theft the wealth and property of others in the village or in the
forest. Abandoning sexual misconduct, he abstains from sexual mis-
conduct; he does not have intercourse with women who are protected
by their mother, father, mother and father, brother, sister, or relatives,
w
ho have a husband, who are protected by law, or with those already
engaged. That is how there are three kinds of righteous bodily con-
duct, conduct in accordance with the Dhamma.
13. "And how, householders, are there four kinds of righteous ver-
bal conduct, conduct in accordance with the Dhamma? Here someone,
abandoning false speech, abstains from false speech; when summoned
to a court, or to a meeting, or to his relatives' presence, or to his guild,
or to the royal family's presence, and questioned as a witness thus: 'So,
good man, tell what you know,' not knowing, he says, T do not know,'
or knowing, he says, T know'; not seeing, he says, T do not see,' or see-
ing, he says, T see'; he does not in full awareness speak falsehood for
his own ends, or for another's ends, or for some trifling worldly end.
Abandoning malicious speech, he abstains from malicious speech; he
does not repeat elsewhere what he has heard here in order to divide
[those people] from these, nor does he repeat to these people what he
has heard elsewhere in order to divide [these people] from those; thus
he is one who reunites those who are divided, a promoter of friend-
ships, who enjoys concord, rejoices in concord, delights in concord, a
speaker of words that promote concord. Abandoning harsh speech, he
abstains from harsh speech; he speaks such words as are gentle, pleas-
ing to the ear, and loveable, as go to the heart, are courteous, desired
by many, and agreeable to many. Abandoning idle chatter, he abstains
from idle chatter; he speaks at the right time, speaks what is fact,
speaks on what is good, speaks on the Dhamma and the Discipline; at
the right time he speaks such words as are worth recording, reasonable,
moderate, and beneficial. That is how there are four kinds of righteous
verbal conduct, conduct in accordance with the Dhamma.
14. "And how, householders, are there three kinds of righteous men-
tal conduct, conduct in accordance with the Dhamma? Here someone
is not covetous; he does not covet the wealth and property of others
thus: 'Oh, may what belongs to another be mine!' His mind is without
ill will, and he has intentions free from hate thus: 'May these beings be
160 In the Buddha's Words
free from enmity, affliction, and anxiety! May they live happily!' He
has right view, undistorted vision, thus: There is what is given and
what is offered and what is sacrificed; there is fruit and result of good
and bad actions; there is this world and the other world; there is
mother and father; there are beings who are reborn spontaneously;
there are good and virtuous ascetics and brahmins in the world who
have themselves realized by direct knowledge and declare this world
and the other world.' That is how there are three kinds of righteous
mental conduct, conduct in accordance with the Dhamma. So, house-
holders, it is by reason of such righteous conduct, such conduct in
accordance with the Dhamma that some beings here, on the breakup
of the body, after death, are reborn in a good destination, even in a
heavenly world.
15. "If, householders, one who observes righteous conduct, conduct
in accordance with the Dhamma, should wish: 'Oh, that on the
breakup of the body, after death, may I be reborn in the company of
well-to-do nobles!' it is possible that, on the breakup of the body, after
death, he will be reborn in the company of well-to-do nobles. Why is
that? Because he observes righteous conduct, conduct in accordance
with the Dhamma.
16-17. "If, householders, one who observes righteous conduct, con-
duct in accordance with the Dhamma, should wish: 'Oh, that on the
breakup of the body, after death, may I be reborn in the company of
well-to-do brahmins!... in the company of well-to-do householders!' it
is possible that, on the breakup of the body, after death, he will be
reborn in the company of well-to-do householders. Why is that?
Because he observes righteous conduct, conduct in accordance with
the Dhamma.
18-42. "If, householders, one who observes righteous conduct,
conduct in accordance with the Dhamma, should wish: 'Oh, that on
the breakup of the body, after death, may I be reborn in the company
of the devas of the realm of the Four Great Kings!... in the company
of the Tavatimsa devas ... the Yama devas ... the Tusita devas ... the
devas who delight in creating ... the devas who wield power over
others' creations ... the devas of Brahma's company ... the devas of
radiance
12
... the devas of limited radiance ... the devas of immeas-
urable radiance ... the devas of streaming radiance ... the devas of
glory ... the devas of limited glory ... the devas of immeasurable
The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 161
glory ... the devas of refulgent glory ... the devas of great fruit ...
the aviha devas ... the atappu devas ... the sudassa devas ... the sudassi
devas ... the akanittha devas ... the devas of the base of the infinity of
space ... the devas of the base of the infinity of consciousness ... the
devas of the base of nothingness ... the devas of the base of neither-
perception-nor-non-perception!' it is possible that on the breakup of
the body, after death, he will be reborn in the company of the devas
of the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception. Why is that?
Because he observes righteous conduct, conduct in accordance with
the Dhamma.
43. "If, householders, one who observes conduct in accordance with
the Dhamma, righteous conduct, should wish: 'Oh, by realizing it for
myself with direct knowledge, may I in this very life enter upon and
dwell in the liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom, that is taintless
with the destruction of the taints!' it is possible that, by realizing it for
himself with direct knowledge, in this very life he will enter upon and
dwell in the liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom, that is taintless
with the destruction of the taints. Why is that? Because he observes
righteous conduct, conduct in accordance with the Dhamma."
13
44. When this was said, the brahmin householders of Sala said to
the Blessed One: "Magnificent, Master Gotama! Magnificent, Master
Gotama! Master Gotama has made the Dhamma clear in many ways,
as though he were turning upright what had been overthrown, reveal-
ing what was hidden, showing the way to one who was lost, or hold-
ing up a lamp in the darkness so those with good eyesight can see
forms. We now go for refuge to Master Gotama, to the Dhamma, and
to the Sahgha of monks. Let Master Gotama accept us as lay followers
who have gone for refuge from today until life's end."
(MN 41: Saleyyaka Sutta; 1286-90)
(3) Kamma and Its Fruits
1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living at
Savatthi in Jeta's Grove, Anathapindika's Park.
2. Then the brahmin student Subha, Todeyya's son, went to the
Blessed One and exchanged greetings with him. When this courteous
and amiable talk was finished, he sat down at one side and asked the
Blessed One:
162 In the Buddha's Words
3. "Master Gotama, why is it that human beings are seen to be infe-
rior and superior? For people are seen to be short-lived and long-lived,
sickly and healthy, ugly and beautiful, without influence and influen-
tial, poor and wealthy, low born and high born, stupid and wise. Why
is it, Master Gotama, that human beings are seen to be inferior and
superior?"
4. "Student, beings are owners of their actions, heirs of their actions;
they originate from their actions, are bound to their actions, have their
actions as their refuge. It is action that distinguishes beings as inferior
and superior."
"I do not understand in detail the meaning of Master Gotama's
statement, which he spoke in brief without expounding the meaning
in detail. It would be good if Master Gotama would teach me the
Dhamma so that I might understand in detail the meaning of his
statement."
"Then, student, listen and attend closely to what I shall say."
"Yes, sir," Subha replied. The Blessed One said this:
5. "Here, student, some man or woman kills living beings and is
murderous, bloody-handed, given to blows and violence, merciless to
living beings. Because of performing and undertaking such action, on
the breakup of the body, after death, he is reborn in a state of misery,
in a bad destination, in the lower world, in hell. But if on the breakup
of the body, after death, he is not reborn in a state of misery, in a bad
destination, in the lower world, in hell, but instead comes back to the
human state, then wherever he is reborn he is short-lived.
14
This is the
way, student, that leads to short life, namely, one kills living beings
and is murderous, bloody-handed, given to blows and violence, mer-
ciless to living beings.
6. "But here, student, some man or woman, abandoning the destruc-
tion of life, abstains from the destruction of life; with rod and weapon
laid aside, conscientious, merciful, he dwells compassionate to all liv-
ing beings. Because of performing and undertaking such action, on the
breakup of the body, after death, he is reborn in a good destination, in
a heavenly world. But if on the breakup of the body, after death, he is
not reborn in a good destination, in a heavenly world, but instead
comes back to the human state, then wherever he is reborn he is long-
lived.
15
This is the way, student, that leads to long life, namely, aban-
doning the destruction of life, one abstains from the destruction of life;
The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 163
vvith rod and weapon laid aside, conscientious, merciful, one dwells
compassionate to all living beings.
7. "Here, student, some man or woman is given to injuring beings
with the hand, with a clod, with a stick, or with a knife. Because of per-
forming and undertaking such action, on the breakup of the body, after
death, he is reborn in a state of misery.... But if instead he comes back
to the human state, then wherever he is reborn he is sickly. This is the
way, student, that leads to sickliness, namely, one is given to injuring
beings with the hand, with a clod, with a stick, or with a knife.
8. "But here, student, some man or woman is not given to injuring
beings with the hand, with a clod, with a stick, or with a knife. Because
of performing and undertaking such action, on the breakup of the
body, after death, he is reborn in a good destination.... But if instead he
comes back to the human state, then wherever he is reborn he is
healthy. This is the way, student, that leads to health, namely, one is not
given to injuring beings with the hand, with a clod, with a stick, or
with a knife.
9. "Here, student, some man or woman is of an angry and irritable
character; even when criticized a little, he is offended, becomes angry,
hostile, and resentful, and displays anger, hate, and bitterness. Because
of performing and undertaking such action ... he is reborn in a state of
misery... But if instead he comes back to the human state, then wher-
ever he is reborn he is ugly. This is the way, student, that leads to ugli-
ness, namely, one is of an angry and irritable character ... and displays
anger, hate, and bitterness.
10. "But here, student, some man or woman is not of an angry and
irritable character; even when criticized a little, he is not offended, does
not become angry, hostile, and resentful, and does not display anger,
hate, and bitterness. Because of performing and undertaking such
action ... he is reborn in a good destination.... But if instead he comes
back to the human state, then wherever he is reborn he is beautiful.
This is the way, student, that leads to being beautiful, namely, one is not
of an angry and irritable character ... and does not display anger, hate,
and bitterness.
11. "Here,
student, some man or woman is envious, one who envies,
resents, and begrudges the gains, honor, respect, reverence, salutations,
and veneration received by others. Because of performing and under-
taking such action ... he is reborn in a state of misery... But if instead
164 In the Buddha's Words
he comes back to the human state, then wherever he is reborn he is
without influence. This is the way, student, that leads to being without
influence, namely, one is envious ... toward the gains, honor, respect,
reverence, salutations, and veneration received by others.
12. "But here, student, some man or woman is not envious, one who
does not envy, resent, and begrudge the gains, honor, respect, rever-
ence, salutations, and veneration received by others. Because of per-
forming and undertaking such action ... he is reborn in a good
destination.... But if instead he comes back to the human state, then
wherever he is reborn he is influential. This is the way, student, that
leads to being influential, namely, one is not envious ... toward the
gains, honor, respect, reverence, salutations, and veneration received
by others.
13. "Here, student, some man or woman does not give food, drink,
clothing, carriages, garlands, scents, unguents, beds, dwelling, and
lamps to ascetics or brahmins. Because of performing and undertaking
such action ... he is reborn in a state of misery... But if instead he
comes back to the human state, then wherever he is reborn he is poor.
This is the way, student, that leads to poverty, namely, one does not
give food ... and lamps to ascetics or brahmins.
14. "But here, student, some man or woman gives food ... and lamps
to ascetics or brahmins. Because of performing and undertaking such
action ... he is reborn in a good destination.... But if instead he comes
back to the human state, then wherever he is reborn he is wealthy. This
is the way, student, that leads to wealth, namely, one gives food ... and
lamps to ascetics or brahmins.
15. "Here, student, some man or woman is obstinate and arrogant;
he does not pay homage to one who should receive homage, does not
rise up for one in whose presence he should rise up, does not offer a
seat to one who deserves a seat, does not make way for one for whom
he should make way, and does not honor, respect, revere, and vener-
ate one who should be honored, respected, revered, and venerated.
Because of performing and undertaking such action ... he is reborn in
a state of misery.... But if instead he comes back to the human state,
then wherever he is reborn he is low born. This is the way, student,
that leads to low birth, namely, one is obstinate and arrogant ... and
does not honor, respect, revere, and venerate one who should be hon-
ored, respected, revered, and venerated.
The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 165
\6. "But here, student, some man or woman is not obstinate and
arrogant; he pays homage to one who should receive homage, rises up
for one in whose presence he should rise up, offers a seat to one who
deserves a seat, makes way for one for whom he should make way,
and honors, respects, reveres, and venerates one who should be hon-
ored, respected, revered, and venerated. Because of performing and
undertaking such action ... he is reborn in a good destination.... But if
instead he comes back to the human state, then wherever he is reborn
he is high born. This is the way, student, that leads to high birth,
namely, one is not obstinate and arrogant ... and honors, respects,
reveres, and venerates one who should be honored, respected, revered,
and venerated.
17. "Here, student, some man or woman does not visit an ascetic or
a brahmin and ask: 'Venerable sir, what is wholesome? What is
unwholesome? What is blamable? What is blameless? What should
be cultivated? What should not be cultivated? What kind of action
will lead to my harm and suffering for a long time? What kind of
action will lead to my welfare and happiness for a long time?' Because
of performing and undertaking such action ... he is reborn in a state
of misery.... But if instead he comes back to the human state, then
wherever he is reborn he is stupid. This is the way, student, that leads
to stupidity, namely, one does not visit an ascetic or brahmin and ask
such questions.
18. "But here, student, some man or woman visits an ascetic or a
brahmin and asks: 'Venerable sir, what is wholesome?... What kind of
action will lead to my welfare and happiness for a long time?' Because
of performing and undertaking such action ... he is reborn in a good
destination.... But if instead he comes back to the human state, then
wherever he is reborn he is wise. This is the way, student, that leads
to wisdom, namely, one visits an ascetic or brahmin and asks such
questions.
19. "Thus, student, the way that leads to short life makes people
short-lived, the way that leads to long life makes people long-lived;
the way that leads to sickliness makes people sickly, the way that leads
to health makes people healthy; the way that leads to ugliness makes
people ugly, the way that leads to beauty makes people beautiful; the
way that leads to being uninfluential makes people uninfluential, the
Way that leads to being influential makes people influential; the way
166 In the Buddha's Words
that leads to poverty makes people poor, the way that leads to wealth
makes people wealthy; the way that leads to low birth makes people
low born, the way that leads to high birth makes people high born; the
way that leads to stupidity makes people stupid, the way that leads to
wisdom makes people wise.
20. "Beings are owners of their actions, heirs of their actions; they
originate from their actions, are bound to their actions, have their
actions as their refuge. It is action that distinguishes beings as inferior
and superior."
21. When this was said, the brahmin student Subha, Todeyya's
son, said to the Blessed One: "Magnificent, Master Gotama! Magnif-
icent, Master Gotama!... [as in preceding text] ... Let Master Gotama
accept me as a lay follower who has gone for refuge from today until
life's end."
(MN 135: Culakammavibhanga Sutta; III 202-6)
2. MERIT: THE KEY TO GOOD FORTUNE
(1) Meritorious Deeds
"Monks, do not fear meritorious deeds. This is an expression denoting
happiness, what is desirable, wished for, dear, and agreeable, that is,
meritorious deeds. For I know full well, monks, that for a long time I
experienced desirable, wished for, dear, and agreeable results from
often performing meritorious deeds.
"Having cultivated for seven years a mind of loving-kindness, for
seven eons of contraction and expansion I did not return to this
world. Whenever the eon contracted I reached the plane of streaming
radiance, and when the eon expanded I arose in an empty divine
mansion. And there I was Brahma, the great Brahma, the unvan-
quished victor, the all-seeing, the all-powerful. Thirty-six times I was
Sakka, ruler of the devas. And many hundreds of times I was a
wheel-turning monarch, righteous, a king of righteousness, con-
queror of the four regions of the earth, maintaining stability in the
land, in possession of the seven treasures. What need is there to speak
of mere local kingship?
"It occurred to me, monks, to wonder: 'Of what kind of deed of
mine is this the fruit? Of what deed's ripening am I now of such great
The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 167
accomplishment and power?' And then it occurred to me: 'It is the fruit
of three kinds of deeds of mine, the ripening of three kinds of deeds
that I am now of such great accomplishment and power: deeds of giv-
ing, of self-mastery, and of refraining.'"
(It 22; 14-15)
(2) Three Bases of Merit
"There are, O monks, three ways of making merit. What three? There
are ways of making merit by giving, by moral discipline, and by the
development of meditation.
"There is a person who has practiced the making of merit by giving
only to a limited degree; and, likewise to a limited degree, he has prac-
ticed the making of merit by moral discipline; but he has not under-
taken the making of merit by meditation. With the breakup of the
body, after death, he will be reborn among humans in an unfavorable
condition.
"Another person has practiced the making of merit by giving as well
as by moral discipline to a high degree; but he has not undertaken the
making of merit by meditation. With the breakup of the body, after
death, he will be reborn among humans in a favorable condition.
"Or he will be reborn in the company of the devas of the Four Great
Kings. And there, the Four Great Kings, who had practiced to a very
high degree the making of merit by giving and by moral discipline,
surpass the devas of their realm in ten respects: in divine lifespan,
divine beauty, divine happiness, divine fame, divine power; and in
divine sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and touches.
"Or he will be reborn in the company of the Tavatimsa devas. And
there, Sakka, ruler of the devas, who had practiced the making of merit
by giving and by moral discipline to a very high degree, surpasses the
devas of their realm in ten respects: in divine lifespan, divine beauty,
divine happiness, divine fame, divine power; and in divine sights,
sounds, smells, tastes, and touches.
[Similar statements are made for rebirth among the Yama devas, Tusita
devas, the devas who delight in creating, the devas who wield power over
others' creations, and for the respective rulers of these realms.]
"These, monks, are the three ways of making merit."
(AN 8:36; IV 241-43)
168 In the Buddha's Words
(3) The Best Kinds of Confidence
"Monks, there are these four best kinds of confidence. What four?
"To whatever extent there are beings, whether footless or with two
feet, four feet, or many feet, whether having form or formless, whether
percipient, non-percipient, or neither percipient nor non-percipient,
the Tathagata, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One is declared
the best among them. Those who have confidence in the Buddha have
confidence in the best, and for those who have confidence in the best,
the result is best.
"To whatever extent there are things that are conditioned, the Noble
Eightfold Path is declared the best among them. Those who have con-
fidence in the Noble Eightfold Path have confidence in the best, and for
those who have confidence in the best, the result is best.
"To whatever extent there are things whether conditioned or uncon-
ditioned, dispassion is declared the best among them, that is, the crush-
ing of pride, the removal of thirst, the uprooting of attachment, the
termination of the round, the destruction of craving, dispassion, cessa-
tion, Nibbana. Those who have confidence in the Dhamma have con-
fidence in the best, and for those who have confidence in the best, the
result is best.
"To whatever extent there are communities or groups, the
Tathagata's Sahgha of disciples is declared the best among them, that
is, the four pairs of persons, the eight types of individuals—this Sahgha
of the Blessed One's disciples is worthy of gifts, worthy of hospitality,
worthy of offerings, worthy of reverential salutation, the unsurpassed
field of merit for the world. Those who have confidence in the Sahgha
have confidence in the best, and for those who have confidence in the
best, the result is best."
For those who have confidence as the best,
For those who understand the best Dhamma,
For those who have confidence in the Buddha,
The unsurpassed one worthy of offerings;
For those who have confidence in the Dhamma,
In blissful dispassion, perfect peace;
For those who have confidence in the Sahgha,
The field of merit unsurpassed;
The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 169
For those giving gifts to the best,
The best kind of merit increases:
The best lifespan, beauty, and fame,
Good reputation, happiness, and strength.
Whether he becomes a deva or a human being,
The wise one who gives of the best,
Concentrated upon the best Dhamma,
Rejoices when he has attained to the best.
(AN 4:34; II34-35)
3. GIVING
(1) If People Knew the Result of Giving
"O monks, if people knew, as I know, the result of giving and sharing,
they would not eat without having given, nor would they allow the
stain of niggardliness to obsess them and take root in their minds. Even
if it were their last morsel, their last mouthful, they would not eat with-
out having shared it, if there were someone to share it with. But,
monks, as people do not know, as I know, the result of giving and shar-
ing, they eat without having given, and the stain of niggardliness
obsesses them and takes root in their minds."
(It 26; 18-19)
(2) Reasons for Giving
"There are, O monks, eight reasons for giving. What eight? People may
give out of affection; or in an angry mood; or out of stupidity; or out
of fear; or with the thought: 'Such gifts have been given before by my
father and grandfather and it was done by them before; hence it would
be unworthy of me to give up this old family tradition'; or with the
thought, 'By giving this gift, I shall be reborn in a good destination, in
a heavenly world, after death'; or with the thought, 'When giving this
gift, my heart will be glad, and happiness and joy will arise in me'; or
one gives because it ennobles and adorns the mind."
(AN 8:33; IV 236-37)
170 In the Buddha's Words
(3) The Gift of Food
On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling among the Koliyans, at
a town called Sajjanela. One morning the Blessed One dressed, took his
upper robe and bowl, and went to the dwelling of Suppavasa, a
Koliyan lady. Having arrived there, he sat down on the seat prepared
for him. The Koliyan lady Suppavasa attended to the Blessed One per-
sonally and served him with various kinds of delicious food. When
the Blessed One had finished his meal and had withdrawn his hand
from the bowl, the Koliyan lady Suppavasa sat down to one side, and
the Blessed One addressed her as follows:
"Suppavasa, a noble female disciple, by giving food, gives four
things to those who receive it. What four? She gives long life, beauty,
happiness, and strength. By giving long life, she herself will be
endowed with long life, human or divine. By giving beauty, she herself
will be endowed with beauty, human or divine. By giving happiness,
she herself will be endowed with happiness, human or divine. By giv-
ing strength, she herself will be endowed with strength, human or
divine. A noble female disciple, by giving food, gives those four things
to those who receive it."
(AN 4:57; II 62-63)
(4) A Superior Person's Gifts
"There are, O monks, these five gifts of a superior person. What five?
"He gives a gift out of faith; he gives a gift respectfully; he gives a gift
at the right time; he gives a gift with a generous heart; he gives a gift
without denigration.
"Because he gives a gift out of faith, wherever the result of that gift
ripens he becomes rich, affluent, and wealthy, and he is handsome,
comely, graceful, endowed with supreme beauty of complexion.
"Because he gives a gift respectfully, wherever the result of that gift
ripens he becomes rich, affluent, and wealthy, and his children and
wives, his slaves, messengers, and workers are obedient, lend their
ears to him, and apply their minds to understand him.
"Because he gives a gift at the right time, wherever the result of that
gift ripens he becomes rich, affluent, and wealthy, and benefits come to
him at the right time, in abundant measure.
The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 171
"Because he gives a gift with a generous heart, wherever the result
of that gift ripens he becomes rich, affluent, and wealthy, and his mind
inclines to the enjoyment of excellent things among the five cords of
sensual pleasure.
"Because he gives a gift without denigrating himself and others,
wherever the result of that gift ripens he becomes rich, affluent, and
wealthy, and no loss of his wealth takes place from any quarter,
whether from fire, floods, the king, bandits, or unloved heirs.
"These, monks, are the five gifts of a superior person."
(AN 5:148; III 172-73)
(5) Mutual Support
"Monks, brahmins and householders are very helpful to you. They
provide you with the requisites of robes, almsfood, lodgings, and med-
icines in time of sickness. And you, monks, are very helpful to brah-
mins and householders, as you teach them the Dhamma that is good
in the beginning, the middle, and the end, with the correct meaning
and wording, and you proclaim the spiritual life in its fulfillment and
complete purity. Thus, monks, this spiritual life is lived with mutual
support for the purpose of crossing the flood and making a complete
end of suffering."
(It
107;
111)
(6) Rebirth on Account of Giving
"There are, O monks, eight kinds of rebirth on account of giving. What
eight?
"Here, monks, a certain person makes a gift to an ascetic or a brah-
min, offering him food, drink, clothing, and vehicles; garlands, scents,
and unguents; bedding, lodging, and lighting. In making the gift, he
hopes for a reward. He now notices affluent nobles, brahmins, or
householders enjoying themselves provided and furnished with the
five objects of sensual pleasure, and he thinks: 'Oh, with the breakup
of the body, after death, may I be reborn among them!' And he sets his
mind on that thought, keeps to it firmly, and fosters it. This thought of
his aims at what is low, and if not developed to what is higher it will
lead him to just such a rebirth. With the breakup of the body, after
172 In the Buddha's Words
death, he will be reborn among affluent nobles, brahmins, or house-
holders. This, however, I declare only for the morally pure, not for the
immoral; for it is due to his purity, monks, that the heart's desire of the
morally pure succeeds.
16
"Then again, a certain person makes a gift to an ascetic or a brahmin,
offering him food ... or lighting. In making the gift, he hopes for a
reward. He now hears of the long life, the beauty, and the great happi-
ness of the devas in the realm of the Four Great Kings ... the Tavatimsa
devas ... the Yama devas ... the Tusita devas ... the devas who delight
in creating ... the devas who wield power over others' creations, and
he wishes to be reborn among them. He sets his mind on that thought,
keeps to it firmly, and fosters it. This thought of his aims at what is
low, and if not developed to what is higher, it will lead him to just such
a rebirth. After his death, when his body breaks up, he will be reborn
among the devas in the realm of the Four Great Kings ... or among the
devas who wield power over others' creations. This, however, I declare
only for the morally pure, not for the immoral; for it is due to his purity,
monks, that the heart's desire of the morally pure succeeds.
"Then again, a certain person makes a gift to an ascetic or a brahmin,
offering him food ... or lighting. He now hears of the long life, the
beauty, and the great happiness of the devas of Brahma's company,
and he wishes to be reborn among them. He sets his mind on that
thought, keeps to it firmly, and fosters it. This thought of his aims at
what is low, and if not developed to what is higher, it will lead him to
just such a rebirth. After his death, when his body breaks up, he will be
reborn among the devas of Brahma's company. This, however, I declare
only for the morally pure, not for the immoral; only for one free of lust,
not for one who is lustful.
17
Because he is without lust, monks, the
heart's desire of the morally pure succeeds.
"These, monks, are the eight kinds of rebirth on account of giving."
(AN 8:35; IV 239-41)
4. MORAL DISCIPLINE
(1) The Five Precepts
"There are, O monks, eight streams of merit, streams of the wholesome,
nourishments of happiness, that are heavenly, ripening in happiness,
The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 173
conducive to heaven, and that lead to whatever is wished for, loved,
a
nd agreeable, to one's welfare and happiness. What are the eight?
"Here, monks, a noble disciple has gone for refuge to the Buddha.
This is the first stream of merit, stream of the wholesome, nourishment
of happiness, that is heavenly, ripening in happiness, conducive to
heaven, and that leads to whatever is wished for, loved, and agreeable,
to one's welfare and happiness.
"Further, a noble disciple has gone for refuge to the Dhamma. This
is the second stream of merit ... that leads to whatever is wished for,
loved, and agreeable, to one's welfare and happiness.
"Further, a noble disciple has gone for refuge to the Sahgha. This is
the third stream of merit... that leads to whatever is wished for, loved,
and agreeable, to one's welfare and happiness.
"There are further, monks, these five gifts—pristine, of long stand-
ing, traditional, ancient, unadulterated and never before adulterated,
that are not being adulterated and that will not be adulterated, not
despised by wise ascetics and brahmins. What are these five gifts?
"Here, monks, a noble disciple gives up the destruction of life and
abstains from it. By abstaining from the destruction of life, the noble
disciple gives to immeasurable beings freedom from fear, hostility, and
oppression. By giving to immeasurable beings freedom from fear, hos-
tility, and oppression, he himself will enjoy immeasurable freedom
from fear, hostility, and oppression. This is the first of those great gifts
and the fourth stream of merit.
"Further, monks, a noble disciple gives up the taking of what is not
given and abstains from it. By abstaining from taking what is not given,
the noble disciple gives to immeasurable beings freedom from fear....
This is the second of those great gifts and the fifth stream of merit.
"Further, monks, a noble disciple gives up sexual misconduct and
abstains from it. By abstaining from sexual misconduct, the noble dis-
ciple gives to immeasurable beings freedom from fear.... This is the
third of those great gifts and the sixth stream of merit.
"Further, monks, a noble disciple gives up false speech and abstains
from it. By abstaining from false speech, the noble disciple gives to
immeasurable beings freedom from fear.... This is the fourth of those
great gifts and the seventh stream of merit.
"Further, monks, a noble disciple gives up wines, liquors, and intox-
icants, the basis for negligence, and abstains from them. By abstaining
174 In the Buddha's Words
from wines, liquors, and intoxicants, the noble disciple gives to
immeasurable beings freedom from fear, hostility, end oppression. By
giving to immeasurable beings freedom from fear, hostility, and
oppression, he himself will enjoy immeasurable freedom from fear,
hostility, and oppression. This is the fifth of those great gifts and the
eighth stream of merit.
"These, monks, are the eight streams of merit, streams of the whole-
some, nourishments of happiness, which are heavenly, ripening in hap-
piness, conducive to heaven, and which lead to whatever is wished
for, loved, and agreeable, to one's welfare and happiness."
(AN 8:39; IV 245-47)
(2) The Uposatha Observance
"When, O monks, the uposatha observance is complete in eight fac-
tors, it is of great fruit and benefit, luminous and pervasive. And how
is the uposatha observance complete in eight factors?
18
"Here, monks, a noble disciple reflects thus: 'As long as they live the
arahants abandon the destruction of life, abstain from the destruction
of life; with the rod and weapon laid aside, they are conscientious and
merciful and dwell compassionate toward all living beings. Today I
too, for this day and night, will do likewise. I will imitate the arahants
in this respect, and the uposatha observance will be fulfilled by me.'
This is the first factor it possesses.
"Further, he reflects: 'As long as they live the arahants abandon the
taking of what is not given, abstain from taking what is not given; they
accept only what is given, expect only what is given, and dwell with
honest hearts devoid of theft. Today I too, for this day and night, will
do likewise....' This is the second factor it possesses.
"'As long as they live the arahants abandon sexual relations and
observe celibacy, living apart, refraining from the coarse practice of
sexual intercourse. Today I too, for this day and night, will do like-
wise....' This is the third factor it possesses.
'"As long as they live the arahants abandon false speech, abstain
from false speech; they are speakers of truth, adherents of truth,
trustworthy and reliable, no deceivers of the world. Today I too, for
this day and night, will do likewise....' This is the fourth factor it
possesses.
The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 175
"'As long as they live the arahants abandon wines, liquors, and
intoxicants, the basis of negligence, and abstain from them. Today I
too, for this day and night, will do likewise....' This is the fifth factor
it possesses.
'"As long as they live the arahants eat only one meal a day and refrain
from eating at night, outside the proper time.
19
Today I too, for this day
and night, will do likewise....' This is the sixth factor it possesses.
"'As long as they live the arahants abstain from dancing, singing,
instrumental music, and unsuitable shows, and from adorning them-
selves by wearing garlands and applying scents and ointments. Today
I too, for this day and night, will do likewise....' This is the seventh
factor it possesses.
"'As long as they live the arahants abandon the use of high and lux-
urious beds and seats and abstain from using them; they make use of
low resting places, either small beds or straw mats. Today I too, for
this day and night, will do likewise. I will imitate the arahants in this
respect, and the uposatha observance will be fulfilled by me.' This is
the eighth factor it possesses.
"When, monks, the uposatha observance is complete in these eight
factors, it is of great fruit and benefit, luminous and pervasive. And to
what extent is it of great fruit and benefit, luminous and pervasive?
"Suppose, monks, someone were to exercise sovereignty and domin-
ion over these sixteen great countries abounding in the seven precious
treasures, that is, Ahga, Magadha, Kasi, Kosala, the Vajjis, the Mallas,
the Cetis, Vamsa, the Kurus, the Pahcalas, Maccha, Surasena, Assaka,
Avanti, Gandhara, and Kamboja:
20
this would not be worth a sixteenth
part of the uposatha observance complete in those eight factors. For
what reason? Because human kingship is poor compared to divine
happiness.
"For the devas in the realm of the Four Great Kings a single day and
night is equivalent to fifty human years; thirty such days make up a
nionth, and twelve such months make up a year. The lifespan of the
devas in the realm of the Four Great Kings is five hundred such celes-
tial years. It is possible, monks, that if some man or woman here ob-
serves the uposatha complete in these eight factors, with the breakup
°f the body, after death, they will be reborn in the company of the
devas in the realm of the Four Great Kings. It was with reference to this
that I said human kingship is poor compared to divine happiness.
176 In the Buddha's Words
"For the Tavatimsa devas a single day and night is equivalent to a
hundred human years.... The lifespan of the Tavatimsa devas is a thou-
sand such celestial years.... For the Yama devas a single day and night
is equivalent to two hundred human years.... The lifespan of the Yama
devas is two thousand such celestial years.... For the Tusita devas, a
single day and night is equivalent to four hundred human years....
The lifespan of the Tusita devas is four thousand such celestial years....
For the devas who delight in creating, a single day and night is equiv-
alent to eight hundred human years.... The lifespan of the devas who
delight in creating is eight thousand such celestial years.... For the
devas who wield power over others' creations a single day and night
is equivalent to sixteen hundred human years; thirty such days make
up a month, and twelve such months make up a year. The lifespan of
the devas who wield power over others' creations is sixteen thousand
celestial years. It is possible, monks, that if some man or woman here
observes the uposatha complete in these eight factors, with the breakup
of the body, after death, they will be reborn in the company of the devas
who wield power over others' creations. It was with reference to this
that I said human kingship is poor compared to divine happiness."
(AN 8:41; IV 248-51)
5. MEDITATION
(1) The Development of Loving-Kindness
"Monks, whatever grounds there are for making merit productive of a
future birth, all these do not equal a sixteenth part of the liberation of
mind by loving-kindness. The liberation of mind by loving-kindness
surpasses them and shines forth, bright and brilliant.
"Just as the radiance of all the stars does not equal a sixteenth part
of the moon's radiance, but the moon's radiance surpasses them and
shines forth, bright and brilliant, even so, whatever grounds there are
for making merit productive of a future birth, all these do not equal a
sixteenth part of the liberation of mind by loving-kindness. The liber-
ation of mind by loving-kindness surpasses them and shines forth,
bright and brilliant.
"Just as in the last month of the rainy season, in the autumn, when
the sky is clear and free of clouds, the sun, on ascending, dispels the
The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 177
darkness of space and shines forth, bright and brilliant, even so,
whatever grounds there are for making merit productive of a future
birth, all these do not equal a sixteenth part of the liberation of mind
by loving-kindness. The liberation of mind by loving-kindness sur-
passes them and shines forth, bright and brilliant.
"And just as in the night, at the moment of dawn, the morning star
shines forth, bright and brilliant, even so, whatever grounds there are
for making merit productive of a future birth, all these do not equal a
sixteenth part of the liberation of mind by loving-kindness. The liber-
ation of mind by loving-kindness surpasses them and shines forth,
bright and brilliant."
(It 27; 19-21)
(2) The Four Divine Abodes
22. The brahmin student Subha, Todeyya's son, said to the Blessed One:
"Master Gotama, I have heard that the ascetic Gotama knows the path
to the company of Brahma."
"What do you think, student? Is the village of Nalakara near here,
not far from here?"
"Yes, sir, the village of Nalakara is near here, not far from here."
"What do you think, student? Suppose there was a man born and
raised in the village of Nalakara, and as soon as he had left Nalakara
they asked him about the path to the village. Would that man be slow
or hesitant in answering?"
"No, Master Gotama. Why is that? Because that man has been born
and raised in Nalakara, and is well acquainted with all the paths to
the village."
"Still, a man born and raised in the village of Nalakara might be
slow or hesitant in answering when asked about the path to the village,
but a Tathagata, when asked about the brahma world or the way lead-
ing to the brahma world, would never be slow or hesitant in answer-
ing. I understand Brahma, and I understand the brahma world, and I
understand the way leading to the brahma world, and I understand
how one should practice to be reborn in the brahma world."
23. "Master Gotama, I have heard that the ascetic Gotama teaches the
path to the company of Brahma. It would be good if Master Gotama
would teach me the path to the company of Brahma."
178 In the Buddha's Words
"Then, student, listen and attend closely to what I shall say."
"Yes, sir," he replied. The Blessed One said this:
24. "What, student, is the path to the company of Brahma? Here a
monk dwells pervading one quarter with a mind imbued with loving-
kindness, likewise the second, likewise the third, likewise the fourth;
so above, below, around, and everywhere, and to all as to himself, he
dwells pervading the all-encompassing world with a mind imbued
with loving-kindness, abundant, exalted, immeasurable, without
hostility, and without ill will. When the liberation of mind by loving-
kindness is developed in this way, no limiting action remains there,
none persists there. Just as a vigorous trumpeter could make himself
heard without difficulty in the four quarters, so too, when the liber-
ation of mind by loving-kindness is developed in this way, no limit-
ing action remains there, none persists there.
21
This is the path to the
company of Brahma.
25-27. "Again, a monk dwells pervading one quarter with a mind
imbued with compassion ... with a mind imbued with altruistic joy
... with a mind imbued with equanimity, likewise the second, like-
wise the third, likewise the fourth; so above, below, around, and
everywhere, and to all as to himself, he dwells pervading the all-
encompassing world with a mind imbued with equanimity, abun-
dant, exalted, immeasurable, without hostility, and without ill will.
When the liberation of mind by equanimity is developed in this way,
no limiting action remains there, none persists there. Just as a vigor-
ous trumpeter could make himself heard without difficulty in the
four quarters, so too, when the liberation of mind by equanimity is
developed in this way, no limiting action remains there, none per-
sists there. This too is the path to the company of Brahma."
(from MN 99: Subha Sutta; II 206-8)
(3) Insight Surpasses All
[The Buddha said to Anathapindika:] "In the past, householder,
there was a brahmin named Velama. He gave such a great alms offer-
ing as this: eighty-four thousand bowls of gold filled with silver;
eighty-four thousand bowls of silver filled with gold; eighty-four
thousand bronze bowls filled with bullion; eighty-four thousand ele-
phants, chariots, milch cows, maidens, and couches, many millions
The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 179
of fine cloths, and indescribable amounts of food, drink, ointment,
and bedding.
"As great as was the alms offering that the brahmin Velama gave, it
would be even more fruitful if one would feed a single person pos-
sessed of right view.
22
As great as the brahmin Velama's alms offering
was, and though one would feed a hundred persons possessed of right
view, it would be even more fruitful if one would feed a single once-
returner. As great as the brahmin Velama's alms offering was, and
though one would feed a hundred once-returners, it would be even
more fruitful if one would feed a single nonreturner. As great as the
brahmin Velama's alms offering was, and though one would feed a
hundred nonreturners, it would be even more fruitful if one would
feed a single arahant. As great as the brahmin Velama's alms offering
was, and though one would feed a hundred arahants, it would be even
more fruitful if one would feed a single paccekabuddha.
23
As great as
the brahmin Velama's alms offering was, and though one would feed
a hundred paccekabuddhas, it would be even more fruitful if one
would feed a single Perfectly Enlightened Buddha ... it would be even
more fruitful if one would feed the Sahgha of monks headed by the
Buddha and build a monastery for the sake of the Sahgha of the four
quarters ... it would be even more fruitful if, with a trusting mind, one
would go for refuge to the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sahgha, and
would undertake the five precepts: abstaining from the destruction of
life, from taking what is not given, from sexual misconduct, from false
speech, and from the use of intoxicants. As great as all this might be, it
would be even more fruitful if one would develop a mind of loving-
kindness even for the time it takes to pull a cow's udder. And as great
as all this might be, it would be even more fruitful still if one would
develop the perception of impermanence just for the time it takes to
snap one's fingers."
(AN 9:20, abridged; IV 393-96)
VI. Deepening One's Perspective
on the World
•'•.-
:
L.
INTRODUCTION
In interpreting suttas, we have to take account of the circumstances
under which they were spoken and the persons to whom they were
addressed. During the course of his long ministry, the Buddha had to
adjust his teaching to people with different capacities and needs. He
taught those given to reckless behavior to abandon their self-defeating
ways and engage in wholesome actions that yield pleasant fruits. He
taught those inclined to resign themselves to fate that present effort
determines our present quality of life as well as our future destiny. He
taught those convinced that personal existence ceases with bodily
death that living beings survive the breakup of the body and re-arise
in accordance with their kamma. He taught those not yet ripe enough
for higher attainments to aspire for rebirth among the devas, the celes-
tial beings, and to enjoy the bliss and glory of the heavens.
A blissful heavenly rebirth, however, is not the final purpose for
which the Buddha taught the Dhamma. At best it is only a temporary
waystation. The ultimate goal is the cessation of suffering, and the bliss
of the heavens, no matter how blissful, is not the same as the cessation
of suffering. According to the Buddha's teaching, all states of existence
within the round of rebirths, even the heavens, are transient, unreli-
able, bound up with pain. Thus the ultimate aim of the Dhamma is
nothing short of liberation, which means total release from the round
of birth and death.
What lies beyond the round of rebirths is an unconditioned state
called Nibbana. Nibbana transcends the conditioned world, yet it can be
attained within conditioned existence, in this very life, and experienced
as the extinction of suffering. The Buddha realized Nibbana through
his enlightenment, and for the next forty-five years of his life he endeav-
ored to help others realize it for themselves. The realization of Nibbana
comes with the blossoming of wisdom and brings perfect peace, untar-
nished happiness, and the stilling of the mind's compulsive drives.
Nibbana is the destruction of thirst, the thirst of craving. It is also the
island of safety amid the raging currents of old age, sickness, and death.
183
184 In the Buddha's Words
To guide his spiritually mature disciples toward Nibbana, the
Buddha had to steer them beyond the blissful rewards that could be
won in a future life by performing wholesome deeds. He did so
through the "world-transcending" facets of his teaching, those aspects
designed to lead disciples beyond the "triple world" of sense-sphere
existence, form-sphere existence, and formless existence. Again and
again throughout the discourses, the Buddha offered an uncompro-
mising, razor-sharp exposure of the dangers inherent in all conditioned
states of being. He sounded a clear warning signal that all states of
existence are perilous and fraught with pain. He insisted, unambigu-
ously, that the one hope of lasting security lies in complete purification
and liberation of the mind. He presented a path that cuts through igno-
rance and craving in their entirety and dispels attachment even to the
most refined states of meditative absorption.
In his "graduated discourse on the Dhamma," given to introduce
receptive newcomers to his teaching, the Buddha regularly began by
discussing such practices as giving and moral discipline. He would
extol the beauty of such virtues as generosity, harmlessness, honesty,
and self-restraint, explaining how such meritorious deeds lead to the
joys of a heavenly rebirth. At this point, he would reveal "the danger,
degradation, and defilement in sensual pleasures and the blessings of
renunciation." Having thus gradually "ripened" the minds of his audi-
ence, he would next expound the doctrine distinctive of his own teach-
ing, the Four Noble Truths: suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the
path. When the Buddha himself taught the Four Noble Truths, his pur-
pose was not to give his listeners an introductory course in "basic
Buddhism," but to awaken in them the "vision of the Dhamma," the
first direct realization of the transcendent truth that sets the disciple on
the irreversible path to liberation.
Though we sometimes read in the suttas that disciples attained their
first experience of awakening merely by listening to the Buddha
preach, this does not mean that the Dhamma is easy to understand.
Such disciples could penetrate the truth with such apparent ease
because their faculties were mature, perhaps too because they had
accumulated sufficient supporting conditions from previous lives. But
by its very nature, the world-transcending Dhamma goes against the
grain of the mundane mind. The Buddha describes the Dhamma as
"subtle, deep, and difficult to see," and one of the things that makes it
Deepening One's Perspective on the World 185
so difficult to see is its thesis that the highest happiness cannot be won
by yielding to the longings of the heart but only by subduing them.
This thesis runs utterly counter to the thought, attitudes, and actions
of people fully immersed in the world. As long as we are infatuated
with the seductive lures of sensual enjoyment, as long as we take
delight in being this or becoming that, we will regard the sublime
Dhamma as a mystery and a puzzle. The Buddha therefore realized
that the first major challenge he would face in establishing his world-
transcending Dhamma was to break the grip that sensual pleasure and
worldly attachment have upon the mind. He had to knock the mind
out of its accustomed ruts and set it moving in an altogether different
direction. He had to steer his disciples away from the lures of sensual-
ity and worldly attachment and guide them toward disenchantment,
complete dispassion, and awakening.
The requirements of this task drew upon all the Buddha's skills as a
teacher. It demanded that he make ample use of his ability to precisely
adjust his teaching to the mental proclivities of the people who came
to him for instruction. It demanded that he speak up frankly and can-
didly, even when candor bred resentment. It demanded that he enter
the fray of debate, even though he much preferred the peace of seclu-
sion. It demanded that he use similes, metaphors, and parables when-
ever concrete illustrations could give his arguments stronger appeal. It
demanded that he uphold his principles strongly whether his adver-
saries were hostile ascetics or miscreant monks within the ranks of his
own order (see the opening sections of MN 22 and MN 38, not included
in this anthology). That the Buddha succeeded so well in fulfilling this
difficult task is counted among his truly wonderful and marvelous
accomplishments. This is a point to which Text VI,1 bears eloquent
testimony.
The Buddha's task at this stage in the unfolding of his doctrine is to
impart to us a radically new education in the art of seeing. To follow
the Buddha in the direction he wants to lead us, we have to learn to see
beneath the surface glitter of pleasure, position, and power that usu-
ally enthralls us, and at the same time, to learn to see through the decep-
tive distortions of perception, thought, and views that habitually cloak
our vision. Ordinarily, we represent things to ourselves through the
refractory prism of subjective biases. These biases are shaped by our
craving and attachments, which they in turn reinforce. We see things
186 In the Buddha's Words
that we want to see; we blot out things that threaten or disturb us, that
shake our complacency, that throw into question our comforting
assumptions about ourselves and our lives. To undo this process
involves a commitment to truth that is often unsettling, but in the long
run proves exhilarating and liberating.
The education that the Buddha imparts to us brings about a deepen-
ing of our perspective on the world. To help us transform our understand-
ing and deepen our perspective on the world, he offers us three
standpoints from which we can appraise the values by which we order
our lives. These three standpoints also represent three "moments" or
steps in an unfolding process of insight that starts from our common-
sense attitudes and moves strategically toward higher knowledge,
enlightenment, and release. The three moments are: gratification
(assada), danger (adinava), and escape (nissarana). In Texts VI,2(l)-(3),
this scheme is applied to the world as a whole. Elsewhere in the
Nikayas, the scheme is applied more specifically to the four material
elements (SN 14:31-33), the five aggregates (SN 22:26-28), and the six
internal and external sense bases (SN 35:13-18). The Buddha under-
scores the importance of this scheme with the bold pronouncement
that until he was able to fully evaluate the world (or, in the texts
referred to just above, the elements, aggregates, and sense bases) in
this way, he did not claim that he had attained the unsurpassed perfect
enlightenment.
In advancing systematically through this scheme, one begins by rec-
ognizing the indubitable fact that such worldly phenomena as sense
objects, forms, and feelings give us some degree of gratification. This
gratification consists in the pleasure and joy (sukha-somanassa) we expe-
rience when we succeed in fulfilling our desires. Once we acknowl-
edge this fact, we can then probe deeper by asking whether such
pleasure and joy are entirely satisfactory. If we address this question
with utter honesty, in a dispassionate frame of mind, we will realize
that such pleasure and joy are far from satisfactory. To the contrary,
they are saddled with drawbacks and defects ranging from the trifling
to the catastrophic, defects that we perpetually hide from ourselves so
that we can continue unhindered in our quest for gratification. This is
their danger, the second moment or step of observation. The most per-
vasive danger lurking behind the innocent fagade of our worldly pleas-
ures is their inherent nature of being impermanent (anicca), bound up
Deepening One's Perspective on
with suffering and discontent (dukkha), and subject to inevitable change
and decay (viparinamadhamma).
The third moment, the moment of escape, follows from the second.
"Escape" here is not escapism, a word that implies an anxious attempt
to avoid facing one's problems by pretending they don't exist and los-
ing oneself in distractions. True escape is quite the opposite: the sanest,
most rational, most judicious course of action we can take when we
accurately recognize a genuine danger. It is our search for an exit from
a burning building, our visit to the doctor when we're beset by a per-
sistent fever, our decision to give up smoking when we understand
how it jeopardizes our health. Once we see that the objects of our
attachment are flawed, beset with hidden dangers, we then realize that
the way of escape lies in dropping our attachment to them. This is
"the removal of desire and lust, the abandoning of desire and lust"
(chandaraga-vinaya, chandaraga-pahana) referred to in the texts.
The Pali commentators, not surprisingly, connect these three
moments with the Four Noble Truths. "Gratification" implies the sec-
ond noble truth, for pleasure and joy arouse craving, the origin of suf-
fering. "Danger" is the truth of suffering itself. And "escape" is the
truth of the cessation of suffering, which also implies the Noble Eight-
fold Path, the fourth truth, the way to the cessation of suffering.
In Text VI,3 the Buddha uses this threefold scheme to make a
detailed appraisal of three major objects of attachment: sensual pleas-
ures, bodily form, and feelings. The major portion of the sutta is
devoted to an examination of the dangers in sensual pleasures. It
begins with a close-up view of the tribulations that a "clansman"—a
young householder pursuing the ancient Indian counterpart of a pro-
fessional career—might undergo in his quest for sensual gratification.
As the discourse unfolds, the scope of the examination widens from the
personal to the collective, encompassing the broader social and polit-
ical consequences of this quest. It reaches its climax in striking images
of the warfare and human devastation that follow from the frenzied
mass drive for sensual gratification. "Form" is the physical body. The
Buddha begins his treatment of form by asking the monks to consider
a beautiful young girl. He then traces the progressive stages of her
physical decay, through old age, sickness, death, and the eventual dis-
integration of the corpse until it is reduced to powdered bone. To show
the danger in "feeling," the Buddha selects the feelings of a meditating
188 In the Buddha's Words
monk in the jhanas, the meditative absorptions, the most refined mun-
dane experiences of pleasure and peace. He points out that even these
lofty feelings are impermanent, unsatisfactory, and subject to change.
Although the following texts do not explicitly apply the threefold
scheme, its underlying presence is obvious. Emphasis falls on the
aspect of danger. The two texts presented in section 4 again accentuate
the pitfalls in sensual pleasures, but do so differently from the text of
the preceding section. In Text VI,4(1), the Buddha appears in dialogue
with a pompous householder who imagines that he has "cut off all
worldly affairs." To dispel his complacency, the Buddha uses a series
of similes that expose the deceptiveness of sensual pleasures to show
him what the "cutting off of affairs" means in his own system of train-
ing. The use of similes prevails in Text VI,4(2) as well, which pits the
Buddha against a hedonist named Magandiya. The Buddha here con-
tends that sensual pleasures seem to be pleasurable only through a dis-
tortion of perception, but when seen rightly are like the fire in a
burning charcoal pit—"painful to touch, hot, and scorching." This pas-
sage includes some of the most powerful similes in the Nikayas, and
there can be little doubt that the Buddha has not used them lightly.
The use of imagery also figures prominently in Text VI,5, whose
theme is the transience of human life. Buddhist literature frequently
advises us to contemplate the certainty of death and the uncertainty of
the time of its arrival. This recommendation is not made to induce an
attitude of chronic morbidity but to help us break our infatuation with
life and develop detachment. For this reason, recollection of death has
become one of the most important subjects of Buddhist meditation.
The Buddha elsewhere says that the recollection of death "when devel-
oped and cultivated, gains a foothold in the Deathless and culminates
in the Deathless" (AN 7:46; IV 47-48). Here the transience of life is
underscored by counting up the number of days, seasons, and even
meals in a single life.
Text VT,6 is an excerpt from the Ratthapala Sutta, which recounts
the life of the disciple the Buddha called "the foremost of those who
have gone forth out of faith." Ratthapala was a young man from a well-
established family who was so deeply stirred upon hearing the Buddha
preach that he at once decided to embrace the homeless life of a monk.
The Buddha asked him to obtain his parents' permission, but his par-
ents, being strongly attached to their only son, adamantly refused to
Deepening One's Perspective on the World 189
give their consent. Ratthapala thereupon lay down on the ground and
refused to eat or drink, determined to die right there or receive the
going forth. His parents finally relented and permitted him to become
a monk on the condition that he later return to visit them. Years later,
when he visited his parents, they tried to entice him back to the house-
hold life, but since he had already attained arahantship he was now
beyond any possibility of disrobing. After leaving their home, he went
to the royal pleasure garden, where he gave a discourse to King
Koravya on "four summaries of the Dhamma." This discourse conveys
his profound insights into the depth and universality of suffering,
explaining in simple and lucid words why he, like countless other
capable men and women in the prime of life, chose to leave the com-
forts of the household for the uncertainties of the homeless state.
Craving for sensual pleasures is one trap that keeps beings bound to
the round of rebirths. Another major trap is attachment to views. Thus,
to clear the path to Nibbana, the Buddha not only had to dispel infat-
uation with sensual pleasures but also to expose the danger in views.
This is the theme of section 7.
The most dangerous of wrong views are those that deny or under-
mine the foundations of ethics. Text VI,7(1) draws together a number
of perils posed by this type of wrong view; prominent among them is
rebirth in the lower realms. Views also lead to one-sided, biased inter-
pretations of reality that we cling to as accurate and complete. People
who cling tenaciously to their own views of a particular situation often
come into conflict with those who view the same situation in a differ-
ent light. Views thus give rise to conflicts and disputes. Perhaps no
text in all of world literature has depicted this danger in dogmatic
clinging more succinctly than the famous parable of the blind men and
the elephant, included here as Text VI,7(2).
Text VI,7(3) draws a contrast between the pair of distorted views
known as eternalism (sassutavada) and annihilationism (ucchedavada),
also called, respectively, the view of existence (bhavaditthi) and the view
of nonexistence (vibhavaditthi). Eternalism affirms an eternal compo-
nent in the individual, an indestructible self, and an eternal ground of
the world, such as an all-powerful creator God. Annihilationism denies
that there is any survival beyond death, holding that the individual
comes to a complete end with the demise of the physical body. Eternal-
ism, according to the Buddha, leads to delight in existence and binds
190 In the Buddha's Words
beings to the cycle of existence. Annihilationism is often accompanied
by a disgust with existence that, paradoxically, binds its adherents to
the same existence that they loathe. As we will see below, the Buddha's
teaching of dependent origination avoids both these futile ends (see
IX, pp. 356-57).
Text VI,8 highlights a particular problem posed by eternalist views.
Such views can inspire meditators to attain states of deep meditative
bliss, which they interpret as union with a divine reality or realization
of an eternal self. From the perspective of the Buddha's teaching, how-
ever, such attainments merely create the karmic potential for rebirth
into a realm in which that meditative experience becomes the funda-
mental condition of consciousness. In other words, the attainment of
these states in the human realm generates rebirth into the correspon-
ding planes in the realm of subtle form or the formless realm. While
many religions point to a divine realm as the final answer to the human
predicament, the Buddha's teaching holds that these worlds offer no
final outlet from the impermanence and misery of samsara.
The text cited here shows that certain meditators attain the four
"divine abodes" and take rebirth in the corresponding planes of the
brahma world, where they might abide even for as long as five hundred
great eons. Eventually, however, they must inevitably pass away and
may then fall into the unfortunate realms of rebirth. Similar texts not
included here (AN 3:114,4:124) say the same respectively about realms
of rebirth corresponding to the jhanas and the formless attainments.
The two suttas that constitute the final section of this chapter again
take up the unsatisfactoriness and insecurity of conditioned existence,
reinforcing their message with dramatic imagery. In Text VI,9(1), the
Buddha declares that the amount of tears we have shed while wan-
dering through the round of rebirths is greater than the water in the
four great oceans. In Text VI,9(2), he tells a group of thirty monks that
the amount of blood they have shed when they were slaughtered and
executed in the round of rebirths is greater than the water in the four
great oceans. According to the compilers of the sutta, the impact of this
discourse upon the thirty monks was so powerful that all attained full
liberation on the spot.
VI. DEEPENING ONE'S
PERSPECTIVE ON THE WORLD
1. FOUR WONDERFUL THINGS
"Monks, on the manifestation of the Tathagata, the Arahant, the Per-
fectly Enlightened One, four wonderful and marvelous things appear.
What four?
"People for the most part delight in attachment, take delight in
attachment, rejoice in attachment. But when the Dhamma of non-
attachment is taught by the Tathagata, people wish to listen to it, lend
an ear, and try to understand it. This is the first wonderful and mar-
velous thing that appears on the manifestation of the Tathagata, the
Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One.
"People for the most part delight in conceit, take delight in conceit,
rejoice in conceit. But when the Dhamma is taught by the Tathagata
for the abolition of conceit, people wish to listen to it, lend an ear, and
try to understand it. This is the second wonderful and marvelous thing
that appears on the manifestation of the Tathagata, the Arahant, the
Perfectly Enlightened One.
"People for the most part delight in restlessness, take delight in rest-
lessness, rejoice in restlessness. But when the Dhamma of peace is
taught by the Tathagata, people wish to listen to it, lend an ear, and
try to understand it. This is the third wonderful and marvelous thing
that appears on the manifestation of the Tathagata, the Arahant, the
Perfectly Enlightened One.
"People for the most part live in ignorance, are blinded by igno-
rance, fettered by ignorance. But when the Dhamma is taught by the
Tathagata for the abolition of ignorance, people wish to listen to it,
lend an ear, and try to understand it. This is the fourth wonderful and
marvelous thing that appears on the manifestation of a Tathagata, an
Arahant, a Perfectly Enlightened One.
191
192 In the Buddha's Words
"On the manifestation of the Tathagata, the Arahant, the Perfectly
Enlightened One, these four wonderful and marvelous things appear."
(AN 4:128; II131-32)
2. GRATIFICATION, DANGER, AND ESCAPE
(1) Before My Enlightenment
"Before my enlightenment, O monks, while I was still a bodhisatta, it
occurred to me: 'What is the gratification in the world, what is the
danger in the world, what is the escape from the world?' Then it
occurred to me: 'Whatever pleasure and joy there is in the world, this
is the gratification in the world; that the world is impermanent, bound
up with suffering, and subject to change, this is the danger in the
world; the removal and abandoning of desire and lust for the world,
this is the escape from the world.'
"So long, monks, as I did not directly know, as they really are, the
gratification in the world as gratification, its danger as danger, and
the escape from the world as escape, for so long I did not claim to
have awakened to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment in this
world with its devas, Mara, and Brahma, in this population with its
ascetics and brahmins, its devas and humans.
"But when I directly knew all this, then I claimed to have awakened
to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment in this world with ... its
devas and humans. The knowledge and vision arose in me: 'Unshak-
able is the liberation of my mind; this is my last birth; there is now no
renewed existence.'"
(AN 3:101 §§1-2; I 258-59)
(2) I Set Out Seeking
"O monks, I set out seeking the gratification in the world. Whatever
gratification there is in the world, that I have found. I have clearly seen
with wisdom just how far the gratification in the world extends.
"I set out seeking the danger in the world. Whatever danger there is
in the world, that I have found. I have clearly seen with wisdom just
how far the danger in the world extends.
"I set out seeking an escape from the world. Whatever escape there
Deepening One's Perspective on the World 193
;
g
from the world, that I have found. I have clearly seen with wisdom
iust how far the escape from the world extends."
(AN 3:101
§3;
I 259)
(3) If There Were No Gratification
"If, monks, there were no gratification in the world, beings would not
become enamored with the world. But because there is gratification in
the world, beings become enamored with it.
"If there were no danger in the world, beings would not become dis-
enchanted with the world. But because there is danger in the world,
beings become disenchanted with it.
"If there were no escape from the world, beings could not escape
from it. But as there is an escape from the world, beings can escape
from it."
(AN 3:102; 1260)
3. PROPERLY APPRAISING OBJECTS OF ATTACHMENT
1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living at
Savatthi in Jeta's Grove, Anathapindika's Park.
2. Then, when it was morning, a number of monks dressed, and tak-
ing their bowls and outer robes, went into Savatthi for alms. Then they
thought: "It is still too early to wander for alms in Savatthi. Suppose we
went to the park of the wanderers of other sects." So they went to the
park of the wanderers of other sects and exchanged greetings with the
wanderers. When this courteous and amiable talk was finished, they
sat down at one side. The wanderers said to them:
3. "Friends, the ascetic Gotama describes the full understanding of
sensual pleasures, and we do so too; the ascetic Gotama describes the
full understanding of form, and we do so too; the ascetic Gotama
describes the full understanding of feelings, and we do so too. What
then is the distinction here, friends, what is the variance, what is the
difference between the ascetic Gotama's teaching of the Dhamma and
ours, between his instructions and ours?"
1
194 In the Buddha's Words
4. Then those monks neither approved nor disapproved of the wan-
derers' words. Without doing either they rose from their seats and
went away, thinking: "We shall come to understand the meaning of
these words in the Blessed One's presence."
5. When they had wandered for alms in Savatthi and had returned
from their almsround, after the meal they went to the Blessed One, and
after paying homage to him, they sat down at one side and told him
what had taken place. [The Blessed One said:]
6. "Monks, wanderers of other sects who speak thus should be ques-
tioned thus: 'But, friends, what is the gratification, what is the danger,
and what is the escape in the case of sensual pleasures? What is the
gratification, what is the danger, and what is the escape in the case of
form? What is the gratification, what is the danger, and what is the
escape in the case of feelings?' If they are questioned thus, wanderers
of other sects will fail to account for the matter, and what is more, they
will get into difficulties. Why is that? Because it is not their province.
Monks, I see no one in the world with its devas, Mara, and Brahma, in
this population with its ascetics and brahmins, its devas and humans,
who could satisfy the mind with a reply to these questions except for
the Tathagata or his disciple or one who has learned it from them.
[sensual pleasures]
7. (i) "And what, monks, is the gratification in the case of sensual pleas-
ures? Monks, there are these five cords of sensual pleasure. What are
the five? Forms cognizable by the eye that are wished for, desired,
agreeable and likeable, connected with sensual desire, and provoca-
tive of lust. Sounds cognizable by the ear.... Odors cognizable by the
nose.... Flavors cognizable by the tongue.... Tactile objects cognizable
by the body that are wished for, desired, agreeable and likeable, con-
nected with sensual desire, and provocative of lust. These are the five
cords of sensual pleasure. Now the pleasure and joy that arise depend-
ent on these five cords of sensual pleasure are the gratification in the
case of sensual pleasures.
8. (ii) "And what, monks, is the danger in the case of sensual pleas-
ures? Here, monks, on account of the craft by which a clansman makes
a living—whether checking, accounting, calculating, farming, trad-
ing, husbandry, archery, the royal service, or whatever craft it may
be—he has to face cold and heat; he is injured by contact with gadflies,
Deepening One's Perspective on the World 195
mosquitoes, wind, sun, and creeping things; he risks death by hunger
and thirst. Now this is a danger in the case of sensual pleasures, a mass
of suffering visible in this present life, having sensual pleasures as its
cause, source, and basis, the cause being simply sensual pleasures.
9. "If no property comes to the clansman while he works and strives
and makes an effort thus, he sorrows, grieves, and laments, he weeps
beating his breast and becomes distraught, crying: 'My work is in
vain, my effort is fruitless!' Now this too is a danger in the case of sen-
sual pleasures, a mass of suffering visible in this present life, having
sensual pleasures as its cause, source, and basis, the cause being sim-
ply sensual pleasures.
10. "If property comes to the clansman while he works and strives
and makes an effort thus, he experiences pain and grief in protecting
it: 'How shall neither kings nor thieves make off with my property,
nor fire burn it, nor water sweep it away, nor unloved heirs make off
with it?' And as he guards and protects his property, kings or thieves
make off with it, or fire burns it, or water sweeps it away, or unloved
heirs make off with it. And he sorrows, grieves, and laments, he
weeps beating his breast and becomes distraught, crying: T no longer
have my property!' Now this too is a danger in the case of sensual
pleasures, a mass of suffering visible in this present life, having sen-
sual pleasures as its cause, source, and basis, the cause being simply
sensual pleasures.
11. "Again, with sensual pleasures as the cause ... kings quarrel with
kings, khattiyas with khattiyas, brahmins with brahmins, household-
ers with householders; mother quarrels with son, son with mother,
father with son, son with father; brother quarrels with brother, brother
with sister, sister with brother, friend with friend. And here in their
quarrels, brawls, and disputes they attack each other with fists, clods,
sticks, or knives, whereby they incur death or deadly suffering. Now
this too is a danger in the case of sensual pleasures, a mass of suffering
visible in this present life, having sensual pleasures as its cause, source,
and basis, the cause being simply sensual pleasures.
12. "Again, with sensual pleasures as the cause ... men take swords
and shields and buckle on bows and quivers, and they charge into
battle massed in double array with arrows and spears flying and
swords flashing; and there they are wounded by arrows and spears,
and their heads are cut off by swords, whereby they incur death or
196 In the Buddha's Words
deadly suffering. Now this too is a danger in the case of sensual pleas-
ures, a mass of suffering visible in this present life, having sensual
pleasures as its cause, source, and basis, the cause being simply sensual
pleasures.
13. "Again, with sensual pleasures as the cause ... men take swords
and shields and buckle on bows and quivers, and they charge slip-
pery bastions, with arrows and spears flying and swords flashing;
and there they are wounded by arrows and spears and splashed with
boiling liquids and crushed under heavy weights, and their heads are
cut off by swords, whereby they incur death or deadly suffering. Now
this too is a danger in the case of sensual pleasures, a mass of suffering
visible in this present life, having sensual pleasures as its cause, source,
and basis, the cause being simply sensual pleasures.
14. "Again, with sensual pleasures as the cause ... men break into
houses, plunder wealth, commit burglary, ambush highways, seduce
others' wives, and when they are caught, kings have many kinds of
torture inflicted on them ... whereby they incur death or deadly suffer-
ing. Now this too is a danger in the case of sensual pleasures, a mass
of suffering visible in this present life, having sensual pleasures as its
cause, source, and basis, the cause being simply sensual pleasures.
15. "Again, with sensual pleasures as the cause ... people indulge in
misconduct of body, speech, and mind. Having done so, on the
breakup of the body, after death, they are reborn in a state of misery, in
a bad destination, in the lower world, in hell. Now this is a danger in
the case of sensual pleasures, a mass of suffering in the life to come,
2
having sensual pleasures as its cause, source, and basis, the cause being
simply sensual pleasures.
16. (iii) "And what, monks, is the escape in the case of sensual pleas-
ures? It is the removal of desire and lust, the abandonment of desire
and lust for sensual pleasures. This is the escape in the case of sensual
pleasures.
17. "That those ascetics and brahmins who do not understand as it
really is the gratification as gratification, the danger as danger, and the
escape as escape in the case of sensual pleasures, can either themselves
fully understand sensual pleasures or instruct others so that they can
fully understand sensual pleasures—that is impossible. That those
ascetics and brahmins who understand as it really is the gratification
as gratification, the danger as danger, and the escape as escape in the
Deepening One's Perspective on the World iv/
case of sensual pleasures, can themselves fully understand sensual
pleasures and instruct others so that they can fully understand sensual
pleasures—that is possible.
[form]
18. (i) "And what, monks, is the gratification in the case of form? Sup-
pose there were a girl of the khattiya class or the brahmin class or of
householder stock, in her fifteenth or sixteenth year, neither too tall
nor too short, neither too thin nor too fat, neither too dark nor too fair.
Is her beauty and loveliness then at its height?"—"Yes, venerable
sir."—"Now the pleasure and joy that arise in dependence on that
beauty and loveliness are the gratification in the case of form.
19. (ii) "And what, monks, is the danger in the case of form? Later on
one might see that same woman here at eighty, ninety, or a hundred
years, aged, as crooked as a roof bracket, doubled up, supported by a
walking stick, tottering, frail, her youth gone, her teeth broken, gray-
haired, scanty-haired, bald, wrinkled, with limbs all blotchy. What do
you think, monks? Has her former beauty and loveliness vanished and
the danger become evident?"—"Yes, venerable sir."—"Monks, this is
a danger in the case of form.
20. "Again, one might see that same woman afflicted, suffering, and
gravely ill, lying fouled in her own urine and excrement, lifted up by
some and set down by others. What do you think, monks? Has her for-
mer beauty and loveliness vanished and the danger become evident?"
"Yes, venerable sir."—"Monks, this too is a danger in the case of form.
21. "Again, one might see that same woman as a corpse thrown aside
in a charnel ground, one, two, or three days dead, bloated, livid, and
oozing matter. What do you think, monks? Has her former beauty and
loveliness vanished and the danger become evident?"—"Yes, venera-
ble sir."—"Monks, this too is a danger in the case of form.
22-29. "Again, one might see that same woman as a corpse thrown
aside in a charnel ground, being devoured by crows, hawks, vultures,
dogs, jackals, or various kinds of worms ... a skeleton with flesh and
blood, held together with sinews ... a fleshless skeleton smeared with
blood, held together with sinews ... a skeleton without flesh and blood,
held together with sinews ... disconnected bones scattered in all direc-
tions—here a hand-bone, there a foot-bone, here a thigh-bone, there a
rib-bone, here a hip-bone, there a back-bone, here the skull ... bones
In the Buddha's Words
bleached white, the color of shells ... bones heaped up ... bones more
than a year old, rotted and crumbled to dust. What do you think,
monks? Has her former beauty and loveliness vanished and the dan-
ger become evident?"—"Yes, venerable sir."—"Monks, this too is a
danger in the case of form.
30. (iii) "And what, monks, is the escape in the case of form? It is the
removal of desire and lust, the abandonment of desire and lust for
form. This is the escape in the case of form.
31. "That those ascetics and brahmins who do not understand as it
really is the gratification as gratification, the danger as danger, and the
escape as escape in the case of form, can either themselves fully under-
stand form or instruct others so that they can fully understand form
that is impossible. That those ascetics and brahmins who understand
as it really is the gratification as gratification, the danger as danger,
and the escape as escape in the case of form, can themselves fully
understand form and instruct others so that they can fully understand
form—that is possible.
[feelings]
32. (i) "And what, monks, is the gratification in the case of feelings? Here,
monks, quite secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unwhole-
some states, a monk enters upon and dwells in the first jhana, which is
accompanied by thought and examination, with rapture and happiness
born of seclusion. On such an occasion he does not choose for his own
affliction, or for another's affliction, or for the affliction of both. On that
occasion he feels only feeling that is free from affliction. The highest grat-
ification in the case of feelings is freedom from affliction, I say.
33-35. "Again, with the stilling of thought and examination, a monk
enters upon and dwells in the second jhana.... With the fading away as
well of rapture ... he enters upon and dwells in the third jhana.... With
the abandoning of pleasure and pain he enters upon and dwells in the
fourth jhana.... On such an occasion he does not choose for his own
affliction, or for another's affliction, or for the affliction of both. On
that occasion he feels only feeling that is free from affliction. The high-
est gratification in the case of feelings is freedom from affliction, I say.
36. (ii) "And what, monks, is the danger in the case of feelings? Feel-
ings are impermanent, suffering, and subject to change. This is the
danger in the case of feelings.
Deepening One's Perspective on the World 199
37. (iii) "And what, monks, is the escape in the case of feelings? It is
the removal of desire and lust, the abandonment of desire and lust for
feelings. This is the escape in the case of feelings.
38. "That those ascetics and brahmins who do not understand as it
really is the gratification as gratification, the danger as danger, and the
escape as escape in the case of feelings, can either themselves fully
understand feelings or instruct others so that they can fully understand
feelings—that is impossible. That those ascetics and brahmins who
understand as it really is the gratification as gratification, the danger as
danger, and the escape as escape in the case of feelings, can themselves
fully understand feelings and instruct others so that they can fully
understand feelings—that is possible."
That is what the Blessed One said. The monks were satisfied and
delighted in the Blessed One's words.
(MN 13: Mahadukkhakkhandha Sutta; 184-90)
4. THE PITFALLS IN SENSUAL PLEASURES
(1) Cutting Off AW Affairs
[The householder Potaliya asked the Blessed One:] "Venerable sir,
how is the cutting off of affairs
3
in the Noble One's discipline
achieved entirely and in all ways? It would be good, venerable sir, if
the Blessed One would teach me the Dhamma, showing me how the
cutting off of affairs in the Noble One's discipline is achieved entirely
and in all ways."
"Then listen, householder, and attend closely to what I shall say."
"Yes, venerable sir," Potaliya the householder replied. The Blessed
One said this:
15. "Householder, suppose a dog, overcome by hunger and weakness,
was waiting by a butcher's shop. Then a skilled butcher or his appren-
tice would toss the dog a well-hacked, clean-hacked skeleton of meatless
bones smeared with blood. What do you think, householder? Would
that dog get rid of his hunger and weakness by gnawing such a well-
hacked, clean-hacked skeleton of meatless bones smeared with blood?"
"No, venerable sir. Why is that? Because that was a skeleton of well-
hacked, clean-hacked meatless bones smeared with blood. Eventually
that dog would reap weariness and disappointment."
200 In the Buddha's Words
"So too, householder, a noble disciple considers thus: 'Sensual pleas-
ures have been compared to a skeleton by the Blessed One; they pro-
vide much suffering and much despair, while the danger in them is
still more.' Having seen this thus as it really is with proper wisdom, he
avoids the equanimity that is diversified, based on diversity, and devel-
ops the equanimity that is unified, based on unity,
4
where clinging to
the carnal things of the world utterly ceases without remainder.
16. "Householder, suppose a vulture, a heron, or a hawk seized a
piece of meat and flew away, and then other vultures, herons, and
hawks pursued it and pecked and clawed it. What do you think,
householder? If that first vulture, heron, or hawk does not quickly let
go of that piece of meat, wouldn't it thereby incur death or deadly
suffering?"
"Yes, venerable sir."
"So too, householder, a noble disciple considers thus: 'Sensual pleas-
ures have been compared to a piece of meat by the Blessed One; they
provide much suffering and much despair, while the danger in them
is still more.' Having seen this thus as it really is with proper wisdom
... clinging to the carnal things of the world utterly ceases without
remainder.
17. "Householder, suppose a man took a blazing grass torch and
went against the wind. What do you think, householder? If that man
does not quickly let go of that blazing grass torch, wouldn't that blaz-
ing grass torch burn his hand or his arm or some other part of his body,
so that he might incur death or deadly suffering because of that?"
"Yes, venerable sir."
"So too, householder, a noble disciple considers thus: 'Sensual pleas-
ures have been compared to a grass torch by the Blessed One; they pro-
vide much suffering and much despair, while the danger in them is
still more.' Having seen this thus as it really is with proper wisdom ...
clinging to the carnal things of the world utterly ceases without
remainder.
18. "Householder, suppose there were a charcoal pit deeper than a
man's height full of glowing coals without flame or smoke. Then a man
came who wanted to live and not to die, who wanted pleasure and
recoiled from pain, and two strong men seized him by both arms and
dragged him toward that charcoal pit. What do you think, house-
holder? Would that man twist his body this way and that?"
Deepening One's Perspective on the World 201
"Yes, venerable sir. Why is that? Because that man knows that if he
falls into that charcoal pit, he will incur death or deadly suffering
because of that."
"So too, householder, a noble disciple considers thus: 'Sensual pleas-
ures have been compared to a charcoal pit by the Blessed One; they
provide much suffering and much despair, while the danger in them
is still more.' Having seen this thus as it really is with proper wisdom
... clinging to the carnal things of the world utterly ceases without
remainder.
19. "Householder, suppose a man dreamed about lovely parks,
lovely groves, lovely meadows, and lovely lakes, and on waking he
saw nothing of them. So too, householder, a noble disciple considers
thus: 'Sensual pleasures have been compared to a dream by the Blessed
One; they provide much suffering and much despair, while the danger
in them is still more.' Having seen this thus as it really is with proper
wisdom ... clinging to the carnal things of the world utterly ceases
without remainder.
20. "Householder, suppose a man borrowed goods on loan—a fancy
carriage and fine jewel earrings—and preceded and surrounded by
those borrowed goods he went to the marketplace. Then people, see-
ing him, would say: 'Sirs, that is a rich man! That is how the rich enjoy
their wealth!' Then the owners, whenever they saw him, would take
back their things. What do you think, householder? Would that be
enough for that man to become dejected?"
"Yes, venerable sir. Why is that? Because the owners took back their
things."
"So too, householder, a noble disciple considers thus: 'Sensual
pleasures have been compared to borrowed goods by the Blessed One;
they provide much suffering and much despair, while the danger in
them is still more.' Having seen this thus as it really is with proper
wisdom ... clinging to carnal things of the world utterly ceases with-
out remainder.
21. "Householder, suppose a dense grove not far from some village
or town had a fruit-laden tree, none of whose fruit had fallen to the
ground. Then a man came needing fruit, seeking fruit, wandering in
search of fruit, and he entered the grove and saw the tree laden with
fruit. Thereupon he thought: 'This tree is laden with fruit but none of
its fruit has fallen to the ground. I know how to climb a tree, so let me
202 In the Buddha's Words
climb this tree, eat as much fruit as I want, and fill my bag.' And he did
so. Then a second man came needing fruit, seeking fruit, wandering in
search of fruit, and taking a sharp axe, he too entered the grove and
saw that tree laden with fruit. Thereupon he thought: This tree is laden
with fruit but none of its fruit has fallen to the ground. I do not know
how to climb a tree, so let me cut this tree down at its root, eat as much
fruit as I want, and fill my bag.' And he did so. What do you think,
householder? If that first man who had climbed the tree doesn't come
down quickly, when the tree falls, wouldn't he break his hand or foot
or some other part of his body, so that he might incur death or deadly
suffering because of that?"
"Yes, venerable sir."
"So too, householder, a noble disciple considers thus: 'Sensual
pleasures have been compared to fruits on a tree by the Blessed One;
they provide much suffering and much despair, while the danger in
them is still more.' Having seen this thus as it really is with proper
wisdom, he avoids the equanimity that is diversified, based on diver-
sity, and develops the equanimity that is unified, based on unity,
where clinging to the carnal things of the world utterly ceases with-
out remainder."
(from MN 54: Potaliya Sutta; 1364-66)
(2) The Fever of Sensual Pleasures
10. "Magandiya, formerly when I lived the household life, I enjoyed
myself, provided and endowed with the five cords of sensual pleasure:
with forms cognizable by the eye ... with sounds cognizable by the ear
... with odors cognizable by the nose ... with flavors cognizable by the
tongue ... with tactile objects cognizable by the body that are wished
for, desired, agreeable, and likeable, connected with sensual desire and
provocative of lust.
5
1 had three palaces, one for the rainy season, one
for the winter, and one for the summer. I lived in the rains' palace for
the four months of the rainy season, enjoying myself with musicians,
none male, and I did not go down to the lower palace.
6
"On a later occasion, having understood as they really are the origin,
the passing away, the gratification, the danger, and the escape in the
case of sensual pleasures, I abandoned craving for sensual pleasures,
I removed the fever of sensual pleasures, and I dwell without thirst,
Deepening One's Perspective on the World 203
vvith a mind inwardly at peace. I see other people who are not free
from lust for sensual pleasures being devoured by craving for sensual
pleasures, burning with the fever of sensual pleasures, indulging in
sensual pleasures, and I do not envy them, nor do I delight therein.
Why is that? Because there is, Magandiya, a delight apart from sen-
sual pleasures, apart from unwholesome states, which surpasses even
divine bliss.
7
Since I take delight in that, I do not envy what is inferior,
nor do I delight therein.
11. "Suppose, Magandiya, a householder or a householder's son was
rich, affluent, and wealthy, and being provided and endowed with the
five cords of sensual pleasure, he might enjoy himself with forms cog-
nizable by the eye ... with sounds cognizable by the ear ... with odors
cognizable by the nose ... with flavors cognizable by the tongue ...
with tactile objects cognizable by the body that are wished for, desired,
agreeable and likeable, connected with sensual desire and provocative
of lust. Having conducted himself well in body, speech, and mind, on
the breakup of the body, after death, he might be reborn in a good des-
tination, in a heavenly world in the retinue of the Tavatimsa devas;
and there, surrounded by a group of nymphs in the Nandana Grove,
8
he would enjoy himself provided and endowed with the five cords of
divine sensual pleasure. Suppose he saw a householder or a house-
holder's son enjoying himself, provided and endowed with the five
cords of [human] sensual pleasure. What do you think, Magandiya?
Would that young deva surrounded by the group of nymphs in the
Nandana Grove, enjoying himself provided and endowed with the five
cords of divine sensual pleasure, envy the householder or the house-
holder's son for the five cords of human sensual pleasure or would he
be enticed by human sensual pleasures?"
"No, Master Gotama. Why not? Because divine sensual pleasures
are more excellent and sublime than human sensual pleasures."
12. "So too, Magandiya, formerly when I lived the household life, I
enjoyed myself, provided and endowed with the five cords of sensual
pleasure: with forms cognizable by the eye ... with tactile objects cog-
nizable by the body that are wished for, desired, agreeable, and like-
able, connected with sensual desire and provocative of lust. On a later
occasion, having understood as they really are the gratification, the dan-
ger, and the escape in the case of sensual pleasures, I abandoned crav-
ing for sensual pleasures, I removed the fever of sensual pleasures, and
204 In the Buddha's Words
I dwell without thirst, with a mind inwardly at peace. I see other peo-
ple who are not free from lust for sensual pleasures being devoured by
craving for sensual pleasures, burning with the fever of sensual pleas-
ures, indulging in sensual pleasures, and I do not envy them nor do I
delight therein. Why is that? Because there is, Magandiya, a delight
apart from sensual pleasures, apart from unwholesome states, which
surpasses even divine bliss. Since I take delight in that, I do not envy
what is inferior, nor do I delight therein.
13. "Suppose, Magandiya, there was a leper with sores and blisters
on his limbs, being devoured by worms, scratching the scabs off the
openings of his wounds with his nails, cauterizing his body over a
burning charcoal pit. Then his friends and companions, his kinsmen
and relatives, would bring a physician to treat him. The physician
would make medicine for him, and by means of that medicine the man
would be cured of his leprosy and would become well and happy,
independent, master of himself, able to go where he likes. Then he
might see another leper with sores and blisters on his limbs, being
devoured by worms, scratching the scabs off the openings of his
wounds with his nails, cauterizing his body over a burning charcoal
pit. What do you think, Magandiya? Would that man envy that leper
for his burning charcoal pit or his use of medicine?"
"No, Master Gotama. Why is that? Because when there is sickness,
there is need for medicine, and when there is no sickness there is no
need for medicine."
14. "So too, Magandiya, formerly when I lived the household life ...
[as in §12] ... Since I take delight in that, I do not envy what is inferior,
nor do I delight therein.
15. "Suppose, Magandiya, there was a leper with sores and blisters
on his limbs, being devoured by worms, scratching the scabs off the
openings of his wounds with his nails, cauterizing his body over a
burning charcoal pit. Then his friends and companions, his kinsmen
and relatives, brought a physician to treat him. The physician would
make medicine for him, and by means of that medicine the man would
be cured of his leprosy and would become well and happy, independ-
ent, master of himself, able to go where he likes. Then two strong men
would seize him by both arms and drag him toward a burning charcoal
pit. What do you think, Magandiya? Would that man twist his body
this way and that?"
Deepening One's Perspective on the World
"Yes, Master Gotama. Why is that? Because that fire is indeed painful
to touch, hot, and scorching."
"What do you think, Magandiya? Is it only now that that fire is
painful to touch, hot, and scorching, or previously too was that fire
painful to touch, hot, and scorching?"
"Master Gotama, that fire is now painful to touch, hot, and scorch-
ing, and previously too that fire was painful to touch, hot, and scorch-
ing. For when that man was a leper with sores and blisters on his limbs,
being devoured by worms, scratching the scabs off the openings of his
wounds with his nails, his faculties were impaired; thus, though the
fire was actually painful to touch, he acquired a mistaken perception
of it as pleasant."
16. "So too, Magandiya, in the past sensual pleasures were painful to
touch, hot, and scorching; in the future sensual pleasures will be painful
to touch, hot, and scorching; and now at present sensual pleasures are
painful to touch, hot, and scorching. But these people who are not free
from lust for sensual pleasures, who are devoured by craving for sensual
pleasures, who burn with the fever of sensual pleasures, have faculties
that are impaired; thus, though sensual pleasures are actually painful to
touch, they acquire a mistaken perception of them as pleasant.
9
17. "Suppose, Magandiya, there was a leper with sores and blisters
on his limbs, being devoured by worms, scratching the scabs off the
openings of his wounds with his nails, cauterizing his body over a
burning charcoal pit; the more he scratches the scabs and cauterizes
his body, the fouler, more evil-smelling, and more infected the openings
of his wounds would become, yet he would find a certain measure of
satisfaction and enjoyment in scratching the openings of his wounds.
So too, Magandiya, people who are not free from lust for sensual pleas-
ures, who are devoured by craving for sensual pleasures, who burn
with the fever of sensual pleasures, still indulge in sensual pleasures;
the more they indulge in sensual pleasures, the more their craving for
sensual pleasures increases and the more they are burned by the fever
of sensual pleasures, yet they find a certain measure of satisfaction and
enjoyment in dependence on the five cords of sensual pleasure."
(from MN 75: Magandiya Sutta; 1504-8)
206 In the Buddha's Words
5. LIFE IS SHORT AND FLEETING
"Long ago, O monks, there lived a religious teacher named Araka, who
was free of sensual lust. He had many hundreds of disciples, and this
was the doctrine he taught to them:
'"Short is the life of human beings, O brahmins, limited and brief; it
is full of suffering, full of tribulation. This one should wisely under-
stand. One should do good and live a pure life; for none who is born
can escape death.
"'Just as a dew drop on the tip of a blade of grass will quickly van-
ish at sunrise and will not last long; even so, brahmins, is human life
like a dew drop. It is short, limited, and brief; it is full of suffering, full
of tribulation. This one should wisely understand. One should do good
and live a pure life; for none who is born can escape death.
"'Just as, when rain falls from the sky in thick drops, a bubble
appearing on the water will quickly vanish and will not last long; even
so, brahmins, is human life like a water bubble. It is short... for none
who is born can escape death.
"'Just as a line drawn on water with a stick will quickly vanish and
will not last long; even so, brahmins, is human life like a line drawn on
water. It is short... for none who is born can escape death.
"'Just as a mountain stream, coming from afar, swiftly flowing, car-
rying along much flotsam, will not stand still for a moment, an instant,
a second, but will rush on, swirl and flow forward; even so, brahmins,
is human life like a mountain stream. It is short ... for none who is
born can escape death.
"'Just as a strong man might form a lump of spittle at the tip of his
tongue and spit it out with ease; even so, brahmins, is human life like
a lump of spittle. It is short... for none who is born can escape death.
"'Just as a piece of meat thrown into an iron pan heated all day will
quickly burn up and will not last long; even so, brahmins, is human life
like this piece of meat. It is short... for none who is born can escape death.
"'Just as, when a cow to be slaughtered is led to the shambles, when-
ever she lifts a leg she will be closer to slaughter, closer to death; even
so, brahmins, is human life like cattle doomed to slaughter; it is short,
limited, and brief. It is full of suffering, full of tribulation. This one
should wisely understand. One should do good and live a pure life; for
none who is born can escape death.'
Deepening One's Perspective on the World 207
"But at that time, O monks, the human lifespan was 60,000 -years,
and at 500 years girls were ready for marriage. In those days people
had but six afflictions: cold, heat, hunger, thirst, excrement, and urine.
Though people lived so long and had so few afflictions, that teacher
Araka gave to his disciples such a teaching: 'Short is the life of human
beings....'
"But nowadays, O monks, one could rightly say, 'Short is the life of
human beings ...'; for today one who lives long lives for a hundred
years or a little more. And when living for a hundred years, it is just for
three hundred seasons: a hundred winters, a hundred summers, and a
hundred rains. When living for three hundred seasons, it is just for
twelve hundred months: four hundred winter months, four hundred
summer months, and four hundred months of the rains. When living
for twelve hundred months, it is just for twenty-four hundred fort-
nights: eight hundred fortnights of winter, eight hundred of summer,
and eight hundred of the rains.
"And when living for twenty-four hundred fortnights, it is just for
36,000 days: 12,000 days of winter, 12,000 of summer, and 12,000 of the
rains. And when living for 36,000 days, he eats just 72,000 meals: 24,000
meals in winter, 24,000 in summer, and 24,000 in the rains. And this
includes the taking of mother's milk and the times without food. These
are the times without food: when agitated or grieved or sick, when
observing a fast, or when not obtaining anything to eat.
"Thus, O monks, I have reckoned the life of a centenarian: the limit
of his lifespan, the number of seasons, years, months, and fortnights,
of days and nights, of his meals and foodless times.
"Whatever should be done by a compassionate teacher who, out of
compassion, seeks the welfare of his disciples, that I have done for you.
These are the roots of trees, O monks, these are empty huts. Meditate,
monks, do not be negligent, or else you will regret it later. This is our
instruction to you."
(AN 7:70; IV 136-39)
6. FOUR SUMMARIES OF THE DHAMMA
26. The Venerable Ratthapala went to King Koravya's Migacira garden
and sat down at the root of a tree to pass the day.
208 In the Buddha's Words
27. Then King Koravya addressed his gamekeeper thus: "Good
gamekeeper, tidy up the Migacira Garden so that we may go to the
pleasure garden to see a pleasing spot."—"Yes, sire," he replied. Now
while he was tidying up the Migacira Garden, the gamekeeper saw
the Venerable Ratthapala seated at the root of a tree for the day's abid-
ing. When he saw him, he went to King Koravya and told him: "Sire,
the Migacira Garden has been tidied up. The clansman Ratthapala is
there, the son of the leading clan in this same Thullakotthita, of whom
you have always spoken highly; he is seated at the root of a tree for the
day's abiding."
"Then, good gamekeeper, enough of the pleasure garden for today.
Now we shall go to pay respects to that Master Ratthapala."
28. Then, saying: "Give away all the food that has been prepared
there," King Koravya had a number of state carriages prepared, and
mounting one of them, accompanied by the other carriages, he drove
out from Thullakotthita with the full pomp of royalty to see the Ven-
erable Ratthapala. He drove thus as far as the road was passable for
carriages, and then he dismounted from his carriage and went forward
on foot with a following of the most eminent officials to where the Ven-
erable Ratthapala was. He exchanged greetings with the Venerable
Ratthapala, and when this courteous and amiable talk was finished,
he stood at one side and said: "Here is an elephant rug. Let Master
Ratthapala be seated on it."
"There is no need, great king. Sit down. I am sitting on my own mat."
King Koravya sat down on a seat made ready and said:
29. "Master Ratthapala, there are four kinds of loss. Because they
have undergone these four kinds of loss, some people here shave off
their hair and beard, put on the ochre robe, and go forth from the house-
hold life into homelessness. What are the four? They are loss through
aging, loss through sickness, loss of wealth, and loss of relatives.
30. "And what is loss through aging? Here, Master Ratthapala,
someone is old, aged, burdened with years, advanced in life, come to
the last stage. He considers thus: T am old, aged, burdened with years,
advanced in life, come to the last stage. It is no longer easy for me to
acquire new wealth or to augment wealth already acquired. Suppose
I shave off my hair and beard, put on the ochre robe, and go forth from
the household life into homelessness.' Because he has undergone that
loss through aging, he shaves off his hair and beard, puts on the ochre
Deepening One's Perspective on the World 209
robe, and goes forth from the household life into homelessness. This is
called loss through aging. But Master Ratthapala is now still young, a
black-haired young man endowed with the blessing of youth, in the
prime of life. Master Ratthapala has not undergone any loss through
aging. What has he known, seen, or heard that he has gone forth from
the household life into homelessness?
31. "And what is loss through sickness? Here, Master Ratthapala,
someone is afflicted, suffering, and gravely ill. He considers thus: T am
afflicted, suffering, and gravely ill. It is no longer easy for me to acquire
new wealth ... into homelessness.' Because he has undergone that loss
through sickness ... he goes forth from the household life into homeless-
ness. This is called loss through sickness. But Master Ratthapala now is
free from illness and affliction; he possesses a good digestion that is nei-
ther too cool nor too warm but medium. Master Ratthapala has not
undergone any loss through sickness. What has he known, seen, or
heard that he has gone forth from the household life into homelessness?
32. "And what is loss of wealth? Here, Master Ratthapala, someone
is rich, affluent, and wealthy. Gradually his wealth dwindles away. He
considers thus: 'Formerly I was rich, affluent, and wealthy. Gradually
my wealth has dwindled away. It is no longer easy for me to acquire
new wealth ... into homelessness.' Because he has undergone that loss
of wealth ... he goes forth from the household life into homelessness.
This is called loss of wealth. But Master Ratthapala is the son of the
leading clan in this same Thullakotthita. Master Ratthapala has not
undergone any loss of wealth. What has he known, seen, or heard that
he has gone forth from the household life into homelessness?
33. "And what is loss of relatives? Here, Master Ratthapala, someone
has many friends and companions, kinsmen and relatives. Gradually
those relatives of his dwindle away. He considers thus: 'Formerly I had
many friends and companions, kinsmen and relatives. Gradually those
relatives of mine have dwindled away. It is no longer easy for me to
acquire new wealth ... into homelessness.' Because he has undergone
that loss of relatives ... he goes forth from the household life into home-
lessness. This is called loss of relatives. But Master Ratthapala has
many friends and companions, kinsmen and relatives, in this same
Thullakotthita. Master Ratthapala has not undergone any loss of rela-
tives. What has he known, seen, or heard that he has gone forth from
the household life into homelessness?
210 In the Buddha's Words
34. "Master Ratthapala, these are the four kinds of loss. Because they
have undergone these four kinds of loss, some people here shave off
their hair and beard, put on the ochre robe, and go forth from the
household life into homelessness. Master Ratthapala has not under-
gone any of these. What has he known, seen, or heard that he has gone
forth from the household life into homelessness?"
35. "Great king, there are four summaries of the Dhamma that have
been taught by the Blessed One who knows and sees, the Arahant, the
Perfectly Enlightened One. Knowing and seeing and hearing them, I
went forth from the household life into homelessness. What are the four?
36. (1) "'[Life in] any world is unstable, it is swept away': this is the
first summary of the Dhamma taught by the Blessed One who knows
and sees, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One. Knowing and
seeing and hearing this, I went forth from the household life into
homelessness.
(2) "'[Life in] any world has no shelter and no protector': this is the
second summary of the Dhamma taught by the Blessed One who
knows and sees....
(3) "'[Life in] any world has nothing of its own; one has to leave all
and pass on': this is the third summary of the Dhamma taught by the
Blessed One who knows and sees....
(4) "'[Life in] any world is incomplete, insatiate, the slave of craving':
this is the fourth summary of the Dhamma taught by the Blessed One
who knows and sees....
37. "Great king, these are the four summaries of the Dhamma that
have been taught by the Blessed One who knows and sees, the Ara-
hant, the Perfectly Enlightened One. Knowing and seeing and hearing
them, I went forth from the household life into homelessness."
38. "Master Ratthapala said: '[Life in] any world is unstable, it is
swept away.' How should the meaning of that statement be under-
stood?"
"What do you think, great king? When you were twenty or twenty-
five years old, were you an expert rider of elephants, an expert horse-
man, an expert charioteer, an expert archer, an expert swordsman,
strong in thighs and arms, sturdy, capable in battle?"
"I certainly was, Master Ratthapala. Sometimes I wonder if I had
supernormal power then. I do not see anyone who could equal me in
strength."
Deepening One's Perspective on the World 211
"What do you think, great king? Are you now as strong in thighs
and arms, as sturdy and as capable in battle?"
"No, Master Ratthapala. Now I am old, aged, burdened with
years, advanced in life, come to the last stage; my years have turned
eighty. Sometimes I mean to put my foot here and I put my foot some-
where else."
"Great king, it was on account of this that the Blessed One who
knows and sees, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One, said:
'[Life in] any world is unstable, it is swept away'; and when I knew,
saw, and heard this, I went forth from the household life into home-
lessness."
"It is wonderful, Master Ratthapala, it is marvelous how well that
has been expressed by the Blessed One who knows and sees, the Ara-
hant, the Perfectly Enlightened One: '[Life in] any world is unstable, it
is swept away.' It is indeed so!
39. "Master Ratthapala, there exist in this court elephant troops and
cavalry and chariot troops and infantry, which will serve to subdue
any threats to us. Now Master Ratthapala said: '[Life in] any world has
no shelter and no protector.' How should the meaning of that state-
ment be understood?"
"What do you think, great king? Do you have any chronic ailment?"
"I have a chronic wind ailment, Master Ratthapala. Sometimes my
friends and companions, kinsmen and relatives, stand around me,
thinking: 'Now King Koravya is about to die, now King Koravya is
about to die!'"
"What do you think, great king? Can you command your friends
and companions, your kinsmen and relatives: 'Come, my good friends
and companions, my kinsmen and relatives. All of you present share
this painful feeling so that I may feel less pain'? Or do you have to feel
that pain yourself alone?"
"I cannot command my friends and companions, my kinsmen and
relatives thus, Master Ratthapala. I have to feel that pain alone."
"Great king, it was on account of this that the Blessed One who
knows and sees, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One, said: '[Life
in] any world has no shelter and no protector'; and when I knew, saw,
and heard this, I went forth from the household life into homelessness."
"It is wonderful, Master Ratthapala, it is marvelous how well that has
been expressed by the Blessed One who knows and sees, the Arahant,
212 In the Buddha's Words
the Perfectly Enlightened One: '[Life in] any world has no shelter and
no protector.' It is indeed so!
40. "Master Ratthapala, there exist in this court abundant gold coins
and bullion stored away in vaults and lofts. Now Master Ratthapala
said: '[Life in] any world has nothing of its own; one has to leave all
and pass on.' How should the meaning of that statement be under-
stood?"
"What do you think, great king? You now enjoy yourself provided
and endowed with the five cords of sensual pleasure, but can you be
certain that in the life to come you will likewise enjoy yourself pro-
vided and endowed with these same five cords of sensual pleasure? Or
will others take over this property, while you will have to pass on
according to your actions?"
"I cannot be certain of what will happen in the life to come, Master
Ratthapala. On the contrary, others will take over this property while
I shall have to pass on according to my actions."
"Great king, it was on account of this that the Blessed One who
knows and sees, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One, said:
'[Life in] any world has nothing of its own; one has to leave all and
pass on'; and when I knew, saw, and heard this, I went forth from the
household life into homelessness."
"It is wonderful, Master Ratthapala, it is marvelous how well that
has been expressed by the Blessed One who knows and sees, the Ara-
hant, the Perfectly Enlightened One: '[Life in] any world has nothing
of its own; one has to leave all and pass on.' It is indeed so!
41. "Now
Master Ratthapala said: '[Life in] any world is incomplete,
insatiate, the slave of craving.' How should the meaning of that state-
ment be understood?"
"What do you think, great king? Do you reign over the rich Kuru
country?"
"Yes, Master Ratthapala, I do."
"What do you think, great king? Suppose a trustworthy and reliable
man came to you from the east and said: 'Please know, great king, that
I have come from the east, and there I saw a large country, powerful
and rich, very populous and crowded with people. There are plenty of
elephant troops there, plenty of cavalry, chariot troops, and infantry;
there is plenty of ivory there, and plenty of gold coins and bullion both
unworked and worked, and plenty of women for wives. With your
Deepening One's Perspective on the World
present forces you can conquer it. Conquer it then, great king.' What
would you do?"
"We would conquer it and reign over it, Master Ratthapala."
"What do you think, great king? Suppose a trustworthy and reliable
man came to you from the west... from the north ... from the south ...
from across the sea and said: 'Please know, great king, that I have come
from across the sea, and there I saw a large country, powerful and
rich.... Conquer it then, great king.' What would you do?"
"We would conquer it too and reign over it, Master Ratthapala."
"Great king, it was on account of this that the Blessed One who
knows and sees, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One, said:
'[Life in] any world is incomplete, insatiate, the slave of craving'; and
when I knew, saw, and heard this, I went forth from the household life
into homelessness."
"It is wonderful, Master Ratthapala, it is marvelous how well that
has been expressed by the Blessed One who knows and sees, the Ara-
hant, the Perfectly Enlightened One: '[Life in] any world is incomplete,
insatiate, the slave of craving.' It is indeed so!"
(from MN 82: Ratthapala Sutta; II65-82)
7. THE DANGER IN VIEWS
(1) A Miscellany on Wrong View
"Monks, I do not see even one other thing on account of which
unarisen unwholesome qualities of mind arise and arisen unwhole-
some qualities of mind increase and expand so much as on account of
wrong view.
10
For one of wrong view, unarisen unwholesome quali-
ties of mind arise and arisen unwholesome qualities of mind increase
and expand.
"Monks, I do not see even one other thing on account of which
unarisen wholesome qualities of mind do not arise and arisen whole-
some qualities of mind diminish so much as on account of wrong view.
For one of wrong view, unarisen wholesome qualities of mind do not
arise and arisen wholesome qualities of mind diminish.
"Monks, I do not see even one other thing on account of which, with
the breakup of the body, after death, beings are reborn in a state of mis-
ery, in a bad destination, in the lower world, in hell, so much as on
214 In the Buddha's Words
account of wrong view. Possessing wrong view, with the breakup of
the body, after death, beings are reborn in a state of misery, in a bad
destination, in the lower world, in hell.
"Monks, for a person of wrong view, whatever bodily, verbal, or
mental conduct he undertakes in accordance with that view, and what-
ever volition, aspiration, wish, and volitional formations he engenders
in accordance with that view, all lead to what is undesirable, un-
wanted, and disagreeable, to harm and suffering. For what reason?
Because the view is bad. Just as, when a seed of neem, bitter cucumber,
or bitter gourd is planted in moist soil, it transforms any nutriment it
obtains from the soil and the water into a fruit with a bitter, harsh, and
disagreeable taste, even so is it for a person of wrong view. For what
reason? Because the view is bad."
(ANl:xvii, 1, 3, 7,9; 130-32)
(2) The Blind Men and the Elephant
On one occasion the Blessed One was living at Savatthi in Jeta's Grove,
Anathapindika's Park. Now at that time a number of ascetics and
brahmins, wanderers of other sects, were living around Savatthi. They
held various views, beliefs, and opinions, and propagated various
views. And they were quarrelsome, disputatious, wrangling, wound-
ing each other with verbal darts, saying, "The Dhamma is like this, the
Dhamma is not like that! The Dhamma is not like this, the Dhamma
is like that!"
Then a number of monks entered Savatthi on almsround. Having
returned, after their meal they approached the Blessed One, paid hom-
age to him, sat down to one side, and told him what they had seen.
[The Blessed One said:]
"Monks, wanderers of other sects are blind and sightless. They do
not know what is beneficial and harmful. They do not know what is
the Dhamma and what is not the Dhamma, and thus they are so quar-
relsome and disputatious.
"Formerly, monks, there was a king in Savatthi who addressed a
man and asked him to round up all the persons in the city who were
blind from birth. When the man had done so, the king asked the man
to show the blind men an elephant. To some of the blind men he pre-
sented the head of the elephant, to some the ear, to others a tusk, the
Deepening One's Perspective on the World 215
trunk, the body, a foot, the hindquarters, the tail, or the tuft at the end
of the tail. And to each one he said, 'This is an elephant.'
"When he reported to the king what he had done, the king went to
the blind men and asked them, 'Tell me, blind men, what is an ele-
phant like?'
"Those who had been shown the head of the elephant replied, 'An
elephant, your majesty, is just like a water jar.' Those who had been
shown the ear replied, 'An elephant is just like a winnowing basket.'
Those who had been shown the tusk replied, 'An elephant is just like a
plowshare.' Those who had been shown the trunk replied, 'An elephant
is just like a plow pole.' Those who had been shown the body replied,
'An elephant is just like a storeroom.' And each of the others likewise
described the elephant in terms of the part they had been shown.
"Then, saying, 'An elephant is like this, an elephant is not like that!
An elephant is not like this, an elephant is like that!' they fought each
other with their fists. And the king was delighted. Even so, monks, are
the wanderers of other sects blind and sightless, and thus they become
quarrelsome, disputatious, and wrangling, wounding each other with
verbal darts."
(Ud 6:4; 67-69)
(3) Held by Two Kinds of Views
"Monks, held by two kinds of views, some devas and human beings
hold back and some overreach; only those with vision see.
"And how, monks, do some hold back? Devas and human beings
delight in existence, are delighted with existence, rejoice in existence.
When the Dhamma is taught to them for the cessation of existence,
their minds do not enter into it, acquire confidence in it, settle upon it,
or resolve upon it. Thus, monks, do some hold back.
"And how, monks, do some overreach? Now some are troubled,
ashamed, and disgusted by this very same existence and they rejoice
in nonexistence, saying, 'In as much as this self, good sirs, is annihi-
lated and destroyed with the breakup of the body and does not exist
after death, this is peaceful, this is excellent, this is just so!' Thus,
monks, do some overreach.
"And how, monks do those with vision see? Here, a monk sees what
has come to be as having come to be. Having seen it thus, he practices
216 In the Buddha's Words
the course for disenchantment, for dispassion, for the cessation of what
has come to be. Thus, monks, do those with vision see."
(It 49; 43-44)
8. FROM THE DIVINE REALMS TO THE INFERNAL
"Monks, there are these four kinds of persons found existing in the
world. What four?
"Here, monks, some person dwells pervading one quarter with a
mind imbued with loving-kindness, likewise the second quarter, the
third, and the fourth. Thus above, below, across, and everywhere, and
to all as to himself, he dwells pervading the entire world with a mind
imbued with loving-kindness, vast, exalted, measureless, without hos-
tility, without ill will. He relishes it, takes a liking to it, and is thrilled
by it. If he is firm in it, resolves upon it, often dwells in it, and has not
lost it when he dies, he is reborn in companionship with the devas of
Brahma's company. The lifespan of those devas is an eon. The
worldling remains there all his life, and when he has completed the
entire lifespan of those devas, he goes to hell, to the animal realm, and
to the domain of spirits. But the Blessed One's disciple remains there
all his life, and when he has completed the entire lifespan of those
devas, he attains final Nibbana in that very same state of existence.
This is the difference, the disparity, the distinction between the
instructed noble disciple and the uninstructed worldling, that is, with
regard to destination and rebirth.
"Here, monks, some person dwells pervading one quarter with a
mind imbued with compassion, likewise the second quarter, the third,
and the fourth. Thus above, below, across, and everywhere, and to all
as to himself, he dwells pervading the entire world with a mind
imbued with compassion, vast, exalted, measureless, without hostility,
without ill will. He relishes it, takes a liking to it, and is thrilled by it.
If he is firm in it, resolves upon it, often dwells in it, and has not lost it
when he dies, he is reborn in companionship with the devas of stream-
ing radiance. The lifespan of those devas is two eons. The worldling
remains there all his life, and when he has completed the entire life-
span of those devas, he goes to hell, to the animal realm, and to the
domain of spirits. But the Blessed One's disciple remains there all his
Deepening One's Perspective on the World 217
life, and when he has completed the entire lifespan of those devas, he
attains final Nibbana in that very same state of existence. This is the dif-
ference, the disparity, the distinction between the instructed noble dis-
ciple and the uninstructed worldling, that is, with regard to destination
and rebirth.
"Here, monks, some person dwells pervading one quarter with a
mind imbued with altruistic joy, likewise the second quarter, the third,
and the fourth. Thus above, below, across, and everywhere, and to all
as to himself, he dwells pervading the entire world with a mind
imbued with altruistic joy, vast, exalted, measureless, without hostility,
without ill will. He relishes it, takes a liking to it, and is thrilled by it.
If he is firm in it, resolves upon it, often dwells in it, and has not lost it
when he dies, he is reborn in companionship with the devas of reful-
gent glory. The lifespan of those devas is four eons. The worldling
remains there all his life, and when he has completed the entire life-
span of those devas, he goes to hell, to the animal realm, and to the
domain of spirits. But the Blessed One's disciple remains there all his
life, and when he has completed the entire lifespan of those devas, he
attains final Nibbana in that very same state of existence. This is the dif-
ference, the disparity, the distinction between the instructed noble dis-
ciple and the uninstructed worldling, that is, with regard to destination
and rebirth.
"Here, monks, some person dwells pervading one quarter with a
mind imbued with equanimity, likewise the second quarter, the third,
and the fourth. Thus above, below, across, and everywhere, and to all
as to himself, he dwells pervading the entire world with a mind imbued
with equanimity, vast, exalted, measureless, without hostility, without
ill will. He relishes it, takes a liking to it, and is thrilled by it. If he is firm
in it, resolves upon it, often dwells in it, and has not lost it when he
dies, he is reborn in companionship with the devas of great fruit. The
lifespan of those devas is five hundred eons. The worldling remains
there all his life, and when he has completed the entire life-span of those
devas, he goes to hell, to the animal realm, and to the domain of spir-
its. But the Blessed One's disciple remains there all his life, and when he
has completed the entire lifespan of those devas, he attains final
Nibbana in that very same state of existence. This is the difference, the
disparity, the distinction between the instructed noble disciple and the
uninstructed worldling, that is, with regard to destination and rebirth.
218 In the Buddha's Words
"These, monks, are the four kinds of persons found existing in the
world."
(AN 4:125; II128-29)
9. THE PERILS OF SAMSARA
(1) The Stream of Tears
"Monks, this samsara is without discoverable beginning. A first point
is not discerned of beings roaming and wandering on hindered by
ignorance and fettered by craving. What do you think, monks, which
is more: the stream of tears that you have shed as you roamed and
wandered through this long course, weeping and wailing because of
being united with the disagreeable and separated from the agreeable
this or the water in the four great oceans?"
"As we understand the Dhamma taught by the Blessed One, vener-
able sir, the stream of tears that we have shed as we roamed and wan-
dered through this long course, weeping and wailing because of being
united with the disagreeable and separated from the agreeable—this
alone is more than the water in the four great oceans."
"Good, good, monks! It is good that you understand the Dhamma
taught by me in such a way. The stream of tears that you have shed as
you roamed and wandered through this long course, weeping and
wailing because of being united with the disagreeable and separated
from the agreeable—this alone is more than the water in the four great
oceans. For a long time, monks, you have experienced the death of a
mother; as you have experienced this, weeping and wailing because of
being united with the disagreeable and separated from the agreeable,
the stream of tears that you have shed is more than the water in the
four great oceans.
"For a long time, monks, you have experienced the death of a
father ... the death of a brother ... the death of a sister ... the death of
a son ... the death of a daughter ... the loss of relatives ... the loss of
wealth ... loss through illness; as you have experienced this, weeping
and wailing because of being united with the disagreeable and sep-
arated from the agreeable, the stream of tears that you have shed is
more than the water in the four great oceans. For what reason?
Because, monks, this samsara is without discoverable beginning.... It
Deepening One's Perspective on the World 219
is enough to experience revulsion toward all formations, enough to
become dispassionate toward them, enough to be liberated from them."
(SN 15:3; II179-80)
(2) The Stream of Blood
While the Blessed One was dwelling at Rajagaha in the Bamboo Grove,
thirty monks from Pava approached him—all forest dwellers, alms-
food eaters, rag-robe wearers, three-robe users, yet all still with fet-
ters." Having approached, they paid homage to the Blessed One and
sat down to one side. Then it occurred to the Blessed One: "These thirty
monks from Pava are all forest dwellers, almsfood eaters, rag-robe
wearers, three-robe users, yet all are still with fetters. Let me teach them
the Dhamma in such a way that while they are sitting in these very
seats their minds will be liberated from the taints by nonclinging."
12
Then the Blessed One addressed those monks thus: "Monks!"
"Venerable sir!" those monks replied. The Blessed One said this:
"Monks, this samsara is without discoverable beginning. A first
point is not discerned of beings roaming and wandering on, hindered
by ignorance and fettered by craving. What do you think, monks,
which is more: the stream of blood that you have shed when you were
beheaded as you roamed and wandered through this long course
this or the water in the four great oceans?"
"As we understand the Dhamma taught by the Blessed One, vener-
able sir, the stream of blood that we have shed when we were
beheaded as we roamed and wandered through this long course—this
alone is more than the water in the four great oceans."
"Good, good, monks! It is good that you understand the Dhamma
taught by me in such a way. The stream of blood that you have shed as
you roamed and wandered through this long course—this alone is more
than the water in the four great oceans. For a long time, monks, you
have been cows, and when as cows you were beheaded, the stream of
blood that you shed is greater than the waters in the four great oceans.
For a long time you have been buffalo, sheep, goats, deer, chickens, and
pigs.... For a long time you have been arrested as burglars, highway-
men, and adulterers, and when you were beheaded, the stream of blood
that you shed is greater than the water in the four great oceans. For
what reason? Because, monks, this samsara is without discoverable
220 In the Buddha's Words
beginning. A first point is not discerned of beings roaming and wander-
ing on, hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving. For such a long
time, monks, you have experienced suffering, anguish, and disaster,
and swelled the cemetery. It is enough to become disenchanted with
all formations, enough to become dispassionate toward them, enough
to be liberated from them."
This is what the Blessed One said. Elated, those monks delighted in
the Blessed One's statement. And while this exposition was being spo-
ken, the minds of the thirty monks from Pava were liberated from the
taints by nonclinging.
(SN 15:13; II187-89)
VII. The Path to Liberation
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INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we come to the unique distinguishing feature of the
Buddha's teaching, its "supramundane" or "world-transcending"
(lokuttara) path to liberation. This path builds upon the transformed
understanding and deepened perspective on the nature of the world
that arise from our recognition of the perils in sensual pleasures, the
inevitability of death, and the vicious nature of samsara, themes that
we surveyed in the previous chapter. It aims to lead the practitioner to
the state of liberation that lies beyond all realms of conditioned exis-
tence, to the same sorrowless and stainless bliss of Nibbana that the
Buddha himself attained on the night of his enlightenment.
This chapter presents texts that offer a broad overview of the
Buddha's world-transcending path; the following two chapters will
bring together texts that focus more finely on the training of the mind
and the cultivation of wisdom, the two major branches of the world-
transcending path. I begin, however, with several suttas that are
intended to clarify the purpose of this path, illuminating it from differ-
ent angles. Text VII,1(D, The Shorter Discourse to Maluhkyaputta (MN
63), shows that the Buddhist path is not designed to provide theoreti-
cal answers to philosophical questions. In this sutta the monk
Maluhkyaputta approaches the Buddha and demands answers to ten
speculative questions, threatening to leave the Sahgha if this demand
is not satisfied. Scholars have debated whether the Buddha refused to
answer such questions because they are in principle unanswerable or
simply because they are irrelevant to a practical resolution of the prob-
lem of suffering. Two collections of suttas in the Samyutta Nikaya—SN
33:1-10 and SN 44:7-8—make it clear that the Buddha's "silence" had
a deeper basis than mere pragmatic concerns. These suttas show that
all such questions are based on an underlying assumption that exis-
tence is to be interpreted in terms of a self and a world in which the self
is situated. Since these premises are invalid, no answer framed in terms
of these premises can be valid, and thus the Buddha must reject the
very questions themselves.
223
224 In the Buddha's Words
However, while the Buddha had philosophical grounds for refusing
to answer these questions, he also rejected them because he consid-
ered the obsession with their solutions to be irrelevant to the quest for
release from suffering. This reason is the evident point of the discourse
to Malurikyaputta, with its well-known simile of the man shot by the
poisoned arrow. Whether any of these views is true or not, the Buddha
says, "there is birth, there is aging, there is death, there are sorrow,
lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair, the destruction of which I
prescribe here and now." Against the picture of the samsaric back-
ground sketched at the end of the previous chapter, this statement now
takes on an expanded meaning: the "destruction of birth, aging, and
death" is not merely the end of suffering in a single lifetime, but the
end of the immeasurable suffering of repeated birth, aging, and death
that we have undergone in the countless eons of samsara.
Text VII,1(2), The Greater Discourse on the Simile of the Heartwood
(MN 29), clarifies from a different angle the Buddha's purpose in
expounding his world-transcending Dhamma. The sutta is about a
"clansman" who has gone forth from the household life into home-
lessness intent on reaching the end of suffering. Though earnest in pur-
pose at the time of his ordination, once he attains some success,
whether a lower achievement like gain and honor or a superior one
like concentration and insight, he becomes complacent and neglects
his original purpose in entering the Buddha's path. The Buddha
declares that none of these stations along the way—not moral disci-
pline, concentration, or even knowledge and vision—is the final goal
of the spiritual life. The goal, its heartwood or essential purpose, is
"unshakable liberation of the mind," and he urges those who have
entered the path not to be satisfied with anything less.
Text VII,1(3) is a selection of suttas from "The Connected Discourses
on the Path" (Maggasamyutta). These suttas state that the purpose of
practicing the spiritual life under the Buddha is "the fading away of
lust, ... final Nibbana without clinging," the Noble Eightfold Path
being the way to attain each of these aims.
The Noble Eightfold Path is the classical formulation of the way to
liberation, as is already clear from the Buddha's first sermon, in which
he calls the Eightfold Path the way to the cessation of suffering. Text
VII,2 gives formal definitions of the individual path factors but does
not show concretely how their practice is to be integrated into the life
The Path to Liberation 225
of a disciple. The detailed application will be filled out later in this
chapter and in chapters VIII and IX.
Text VII,3 throws a different spotlight on the path than we are accus-
tomed to hear in standard Buddhist rhetoric. While we are often told
that the practice of the Buddhist path depends entirely on personal
effort, this sutta emphasizes the importance of spiritual friendship. The
Buddha declares that spiritual friendship is not merely "half the spir-
itual life" but the whole of it, for the endeavor to attain spiritual per-
fection is not a purely solitary enterprise but occurs in dependence on
close personal ties. Spiritual friendship gives the practice of the
Dhamma an inescapably human dimension and welds the body of
Buddhist practitioners into a community united both vertically by the
relationship of teacher to students and horizontally by friendships
among peers treading a shared path.
Contrary to a common assumption, the eight path factors are not
steps to be followed in sequence, one after another. They are more
appropriately described as components than as steps. Optimally, all
eight factors should be present simultaneously, each making its own
distinctive contribution, like eight interwoven strands of a cable that
give the cable maximum strength. However, until that stage is reached,
it is inevitable that the factors of the path exhibit some degree of
sequence in their development. The eight factors are commonly distrib-
uted into three groups as follows:
1. the moral discipline group (silakkhandhu), made up of right speech,
right action, and right livelihood;
2. the concentration group (samadhikkhandha), made up of right
effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration;
3. the wisdom group (pannakkhandha), made up of right view and
right intention.
Within the Nikayas, however, this correlation occurs only once (at MN
44; I 301), where it is ascribed to the nun Dhammadinna, not to the
Buddha himself. It might be said that the two wisdom factors are
placed at the beginning because a preliminary right view and right
intention are required at the outset of the path, right view providing
the conceptual understanding of Buddhist principles that guides the
development of the other path factors, right intention the proper moti-
vation and direction for the development of the path.
226 In the Buddha's Words
In the Nikayas, the Buddha often expounds the practice of the path
as a gradual training (anupubbasikkha) that unfolds in stages from the
first step to the final goal. This gradual training is a finer subdivision
of the threefold division of the path into moral discipline, concentra-
tion, and wisdom. Invariably in the suttas the exposition of the grad-
ual training begins with the going forth into homelessness and the
adoption of the lifestyle of a bhikkhu, a Buddhist monk. This immedi-
ately calls attention to the importance of the monastic life in the
Buddha's pragmatic vision. In principle the entire practice of the
Noble Eightfold Path is open to people from any mode of life, monas-
tic or lay, and the Buddha confirms that many among his lay follow-
ers were accomplished in the Dhamma and had attained the first three
of the four stages of awakening, up to nonreturning {anagami; Thera-
vada commentators say that lay followers can also attain the fourth
stage, arahantship, but they do so either on the verge of death or after
attainment immediately seek the going forth). The fact remains, how-
ever, that the household life inevitably fosters a multitude of mun-
dane concerns and personal attachments that impede the single-
hearted quest for liberation. Thus when the Buddha set out on his
own noble quest he did so by going into homelessness, and after his
enlightenment, as a practical way to help others, he established the
Sahgha, the order of monks and nuns, for those who want to devote
themselves fully to the Dhamma unhindered by the cares of house-
hold life.
The gradual training occurs in two versions: a longer version in the
Digha Nikaya and a middle-length version in the Majjhima Nikaya.
The principal differences are: (1) the longer version has a more detailed
treatment of the observances that pertain to monastic etiquette and
ascetic self-restraint; (2) the longer version includes eight types of
higher knowledge while the middle-length version has three types.
However, as these three types are the ones mentioned in the Buddha's
account of his own enlightenment (see Text 11,3(2)), they are by far the
most important. The main paradigm for the longer version of the grad-
ual training is found at DN 2; the middle-length version is at MN 27
and MN 51, with variants at MN 38, MN 39, MN 53, MN 107, and MN
125. Here, Text VH,4 includes the whole of MN 27, which embeds the
training in the simile of the elephant's footprint that gives the sutta its
name. Text VII,5, an excerpt from MN 39, repeats the higher stages of
The Path to Liberation 227
the training as described in MN 27, but includes the impressive simi-
les not included in the latter version.
The sequence opens with the appearance of a Tathagata in the world
and his exposition of the Dhamma. Having heard this, the disciple
acquires faith and follows the Teacher into homelessness. He then
undertakes the rules of discipline that promote the purification of con-
duct and the right livelihood of an ascetic. The next three steps—con-
tentment, restraint of the sense faculties, and mindfulness and clear
comprehension—internalize the process of purification and thereby
bridge the transition from moral discipline to concentration.
The section on the abandonment of the five hindrances deals with
the preliminary training in concentration. The five hindrances—sen-
sual desire, ill will, dullness and drowsiness, restlessness and remorse,
and doubt—are the principal obstacles to meditative development, and
thus they must be removed for the mind to become collected and uni-
fied. The stock passage on the gradual training treats the overcoming
of the hindrances only schematically, but other texts in the Nikayas
provide more practical instructions, while the Pali commentaries offer
even more details. The similes in the version of MN 39—see Text
VII,5—illustrate the joyful sense of freedom that one wins by over-
coming the hindrances.
The next stage in the sequence describes the attainment of the jhanas,
profound states of concentration in which the mind becomes fully
absorbed in its object. The Buddha enumerates four jhanas, named sim-
ply after their numerical position in the series, each more refined and
elevated than its predecessor. The jhanas are always described by the
same formulas, which in several suttas are augmented by similes of
great beauty; again, see Text VII,5. Although wisdom rather than con-
centration is the critical factor in the attainment of enlightenment, the
Buddha invariably includes the jhanas in the gradual training for at least
two reasons: first, because they contribute to the intrinsic perfection of
the path; and second, because the deep concentration they induce serves
as a basis for the arising of insight. The Buddha calls the jhanas the
"footsteps of the Tathagata" (MN 27.19-22) and shows them to be pre-
cursors of the bliss of Nibbana that lies at the end of the training.
From the fourth jhana three alternative lines of further development
become possible. In a number of texts outside the stock passage on
the gradual training the Buddha mentions four meditative states that
228 In the Buddha's Words
continue the mental unification established by the jhanas. These states,
described as "the liberations that are peaceful and formless," are fur-
ther refinements of concentration. Distinguished from the jhanas by
their transcendence of the subtle mental image that serves as the object
in the jhanas, they are named the base of the infinity of space, the base
of the infinity of consciousness, the base of nothingness, and the base
of neither-perception-nor-nonperception.
A second line of development is the acquisition of supernormal
knowledge. The Buddha frequently refers to a set of six types, which
come to be called the six kinds of direct knowledge (chalabhinna). The
last of these, the knowledge of the destruction of the taints, is "supra-
mundane" or world-transcending and thus marks the culmination of
the third line of development. But the other five are all mundane,
products of the extraordinarily powerful mental concentration
achieved in the fourth jhana: the supernormal powers, the divine ear,
the ability to read the minds of others, the recollection of past lives,
and the knowledge of the passing away and rebirth of beings (see Text
VIII,4).
The jhanas and the formless attainments by themselves do not issue
in enlightenment and liberation. Though lofty and peaceful, they can
only silence the defilements that sustain the round of rebirths but can-
not eradicate them. To uproot the defilements at the most fundamen-
tal level, and thereby arrive at enlightenment and liberation, the
meditative process must be directed to a third line of development.
This is the contemplation of "things as they really are," which results
in increasingly deeper insights into the nature of existence and culmi-
nates in the final goal, the attainment of arahantship.
This line of development is the one the Buddha pursues in the pas-
sage on the gradual training. He prefaces it with descriptions of two of
the direct knowledges, the recollection of past lives and the knowledge
of the passing away and rebirth of beings. The three together figured
prominently in the Buddha's own enlightenment—as we saw in Text
11,3(2)—and are collectively called the three true knowledges (tevijja).
Although the first two are not essential to the realization of ara-
hantship, the Buddha probably includes them here because they reveal
the truly vast and profound dimensions of suffering in samsara,
thereby preparing the mind for the penetration of the Four Noble
Truths by which that suffering is diagnosed and surmounted.
The Path to Liberation 229
The passage on the gradual training does not explicitly show the
process of contemplation by which the meditator develops insight.
The whole process is only implied by the mention of its final fruit,
called the knowledge of the destruction of the taints (asavakkhayanana).
The asavas or taints are a classification of defilements considered in
their role of sustaining the forward movement of the process of birth
and death. The commentaries derive the word from a root su meaning
"to flow." Scholars differ as to whether the flow implied by the prefix
a is inward or outward; hence some have rendered it as "influxes" or
"influences," others as "outflows" or "effluents." A stock passage in the
suttas indicates the term's real significance independently of etymol-
ogy when it describes the asavas as states "that defile, bring renewal of
existence, give trouble, ripen in suffering, and lead to future birth,
aging, and death" (MN 36.47; 1250). Thus other translators, bypassing
the literal meaning, have rendered it "cankers," "corruptions," or
"taints." The three taints mentioned in the Nikayas are respectively
synonyms for craving for sensual pleasures, craving for existence, and
ignorance. When the disciple's mind is liberated from the taints by the
completion of the path of arahantship, he reviews his newly won free-
dom and roars his lion's roar: "Birth is destroyed, the spiritual life has
been lived, what had to be done has been done; there is no more com-
ing back to any state of being."
VII. THE PATH TO LIBERATION
1. WHY DOES ONE ENTER THE PATH?
(1) The Arrow of Birth, Aging, and Death
1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living at
Savatthi in Jeta's Grove, Anathapindika's Park.
2. Then, while the Venerable Maluhkyaputta was alone in medita-
tion, the following thought arose in his mind:
"These speculative views have been left undeclared by the Blessed
One, set aside and rejected by him, namely: 'the world is eternal' and
'the world is not eternal'; 'the world is finite' and 'the world is infi-
nite'; 'the soul is the same as the body' and 'the soul is one thing and
the body another'; and 'after death a Tathagata exists' and 'after
death a Tathagata does not exist' and 'after death a Tathagata both
exists and does not exist' and 'after death a Tathagata neither exists
nor does not exist.'
1
The Blessed One does not declare these to me,
and I do not approve of and accept this fact, so I shall go to the
Blessed One and ask him the meaning of this. If he declares to me
either 'the world is eternal' ... or 'after death a Tathagata neither
exists nor does not exist,' then I will lead the spiritual life under him;
if he does not declare these to me, then I will abandon the training
and return to the lower life."
3. Then, when it was evening, the Venerable Maluhkyaputta rose
from meditation and went to the Blessed One. After paying homage to
him, he sat down at one side and told him:
"Here, venerable sir, while I was alone in meditation, the following
thought arose in my mind: 'These speculative views have been left
undeclared by the Blessed One.... If he does not declare these to me,
then I will abandon the training and return to the lower life.' If the
Blessed One knows 'the world is eternal,' let the Blessed One declare
to me 'the world is eternal'; if the Blessed One knows 'the world is not
eternal,' let the Blessed One declare to me 'the world is not eternal.' If
the Blessed One does not know either 'the world is eternal' or 'the
230
lite ram to
world is not eternal,' then it is straightforward for one who does not
know and see to say: T do not know and see.'
"If the Blessed One knows 'the world is finite,' ... 'the world is infi-
nite,' ... 'the soul is the same as the body,' ... 'the soul is one thing and
the body another,' ... 'after death a Tathagata exists,' ... 'after death a
Tathagata does not exist.'... If the Blessed One knows 'after death a
Tathagata both exists and does not exist,' let the Blessed One declare
that to me; if the Blessed One knows 'after death a Tathagata neither
exists nor does not exist,' let the Blessed One declare that to me. If the
Blessed One does not know either 'after death a Tathagata both exists
and does not exist' or 'after death a Tathagata neither exists nor does
not exist,' then it is straightforward for one who does not know and see
to say: T do not know and see.'"
4. "How then, Maluhkyaputta, did I ever say to you: 'Come,
Maluhkyaputta, lead the spiritual life under me and I will declare to
you "the world is eternal" ... or "after death a Tathagata neither exists
nor does not exist'"?"—"No, venerable sir."—"Did you ever tell me: T
will lead the spiritual life under the Blessed One, and the Blessed One
will declare to me "the world is eternal" ... or "after death a Tathagata
neither exists nor does not exist"'?"—"No, venerable sir."—"That
being so, misguided man, who are you and what are you abandoning?
5. "If anyone should say thus: T will not lead the spiritual life under
the Blessed One until the Blessed One declares to me "the world is
eternal" ... or "after death a Tathagata neither exists nor does not
exist,'" that would still remain undeclared by the Tathagata and mean-
while that person would die. Suppose, Maluhkyaputta, a man were
wounded by an arrow thickly smeared with poison, and his friends
and companions, his kinsmen and relatives, brought a surgeon to treat
him. The man would say: T will not let the surgeon pull out this arrow
until I know whether the man who wounded me was a khattiya, a
brahmin, a merchant, or a worker.' And he would say: T will not let the
surgeon pull out this arrow until I know the name and clan of the man
who wounded me;... until I know whether the man who wounded me
was tall, short, or of middle height;... until I know whether the man
who wounded me was dark, brown, or golden-skinned;... until I know
whether the man who wounded me lives in such a village, town, or
city;... until I know whether the bow that wounded me was a long
bow or a crossbow;... until I know whether the bowstring that
232 In the Buddha's Words
wounded me was fiber, reed, sinew, hemp, or bark;... until I know
whether the shaft that wounded me was wild or cultivated;... until I
know with what kind of feathers the shaft that wounded me was fit-
ted—whether those of a vulture, a heron, a hawk, a peacock, or a
stork;... until I know with what kind of sinew the shaft that wounded
me was bound—whether that of an ox, a buffalo, a deer, or a mon-
key;.. . until I know what kind of arrowhead it was that wounded me
whether spiked or razor-tipped or curved or barbed or calf-toothed or
lancet-shaped.'
"All this would still not be known to that man, and meanwhile he
would die. So too, Maluhkyaputta, if anyone should say thus: 'I will
not lead the spiritual life under the Blessed One until the Blessed One
declares to me: "the world is eternal" ... or "after death a Tathagata
neither exists nor does not exist,"' that would still remain undeclared
by the Tathagata and meanwhile that person would die.
6. "Maluhkyaputta, if there is the view 'the world is eternal,' the spir-
itual life cannot be lived; and if there is the view 'the world is not eter-
nal,' the spiritual life cannot be lived. Whether there is the view 'the
world is eternal' or the view 'the world is not eternal,' there is birth,
there is aging, there is death, there are sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejec-
tion, and despair, the destruction of which I prescribe here and now.
"If there is the view 'the world is finite' ... 'the world is infinite' ...
'the soul is the same as the body' ... 'the soul is one thing and the body
another' ... 'after death a Tathagata exists' ... 'after death a Tathagata
does not exist,' the spiritual life cannot be lived.... If there is the view
'after death a Tathagata both exists and does not exist,' the spiritual
life cannot be lived; and if there is the view 'after death a Tathagata
neither exists nor does not exist,' the spiritual life cannot be lived.
Whether there is the view 'after death a Tathagata both exists and does
not exist' or the view 'after death a Tathagata neither exists nor does
not exist,' there is birth, there is aging, there is death, there are sorrow,
lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair, the destruction of which I
prescribe here and now.
7. "Therefore, Maluhkyaputta, remember what I have left unde-
clared as undeclared, and remember what I have declared as declared.
And what have I left undeclared? 'The world is eternal'—I have left
undeclared. 'The world is not eternal'—I have left undeclared. 'The
world is finite'—I have left undeclared. 'The world is infinite'—I have
The Path to Liberation 233
left undeclared. 'The soul is the same as the body'—I have left unde-
clared. 'The soul is one thing and the body another'—I have left unde-
clared. 'After death a Tathagata exists'—I have left undeclared. 'After
death a Tathagata does not exist'—I have left undeclared. 'After death
a Tathagata both exists and does not exist'—I have left undeclared.
'After death a Tathagata neither exists nor does not exist'—I have left
undeclared.
8. "Why have I left that undeclared? Because it is unbeneficial, it
does not belong to the fundamentals of the spiritual life, it does not
lead to disenchantment, to dispassion, to cessation, to peace, to direct
knowledge, to enlightenment, to Nibbana. That is why I have left it
undeclared.
9. "And what have I declared? 'This is suffering'—I have declared.
'This is the origin of suffering'—I have declared. 'This is the cessation
of suffering'—I have declared. 'This is the way leading to the cessa-
tion of suffering'—I have declared.
10. "Why have I declared that? Because it is beneficial, it belongs to
the fundamentals of the spiritual life, it leads to disenchantment, to
dispassion, to cessation, to peace, to direct knowledge, to enlighten-
ment, to Nibbana. That is why I have declared it.
"Therefore, Maluhkyaputta, remember what I have left undeclared
as undeclared, and remember what I have declared as declared."
That is what the Blessed One said. The Venerable Maluhkyaputta
was satisfied and delighted in the Blessed One's words.
2
(MN 63: Culamaluhkya Sutta; 1426-32)
(2) The Heartwood of the Spiritual Life
1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living at
Rajagaha on Mount Vulture Peak; it was soon after Devadatta had left.
3
There, referring to Devadatta, the Blessed One addressed the monks
thus:
2. "Monks, here some clansman goes forth out of faith from the
household life into homelessness, considering: T am a victim of birth,
aging, and death, of sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair;
I am a victim of suffering, a prey to suffering. Surely an ending of this
whole mass of suffering can be known.' When he has gone forth thus,
he acquires gain, honor, and renown. He is pleased with that gain,
234 In the Buddha's Words
honor, and renown, and his intention is fulfilled. On account of it he
lauds himself and disparages others thus: 'I obtain gain and renown,
but these other monks are unknown, of no account.' He becomes intox-
icated with that gain, honor, and renown, grows negligent, falls into
negligence, and being negligent, he lives in suffering.
"Suppose a man needing heartwood, seeking heartwood, wandering
in search of heartwood, came to a great tree standing possessed of
heartwood. Passing over its heartwood, its sapwood, its inner bark,
and its outer bark, he would cut off its twigs and leaves and take them
away thinking they were heartwood. Then a man with good sight, see-
ing him, might say: This good man did not know the heartwood, the
sapwood, the inner bark, the outer bark, or the twigs and leaves. Thus,
while needing heartwood, seeking heartwood, wandering in search of
heartwood, he came to a great tree standing possessed of heartwood,
and passing over its heartwood, its sapwood, its inner bark, and its
outer bark, he cut off its twigs and leaves and took them away think-
ing they were heartwood. Whatever it was this good man had to make
with heartwood, his purpose will not be served.' So too is it with this
monk who becomes intoxicated with that gain, honor, and renown.
This monk is called one who has taken the twigs and leaves of the spir-
itual life and stopped short with that.
3. "Here, monks, some clansman goes forth out of faith from the
household life into homelessness, considering: T am a victim of birth,
aging, and death, of sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair;
I am a victim of suffering, a prey to suffering. Surely an ending of
this whole mass of suffering can be known.' When he has gone forth
thus, he acquires gain, honor, and renown. He is not pleased with
that gain, honor, and renown, and his intention is not fulfilled. He
does not, on account of it, laud himself and disparage others. He does
not become intoxicated with that gain, honor, and renown; he does
not grow negligent and fall into negligence. Being diligent, he achieves
the attainment of moral discipline. He is pleased with that attainment
of moral discipline and his intention is fulfilled. On account of it he
lauds himself and disparages others thus: T have moral discipline; I
am of good character; but these other monks are immoral, of bad char-
acter.' He becomes intoxicated with that attainment of moral disci-
pline, grows negligent, falls into negligence, and being negligent, he
lives in suffering.
The Path to Liberation 235
"Suppose a man needing heartwood, seeking heartwood, w
r
andering
in search of heartwood, came to a great tree standing possessed of
heartwood. Passing over its heartwood, its sapwood, and its inner
bark, he would cut off its outer bark and take it away thinking it was
heartwood. Then a man with good sight, seeing him, might say: 'This
good man did not know the heartwood ... or the twigs and leaves.
Thus, while needing heartwood ... he cut off its outer bark and took it
away thinking it was heartwood. Whatever it was this good man had
to make with heartwood, his purpose will not be served.' So too is it
with this monk who becomes intoxicated with that attainment of moral
discipline. This monk is called one who has taken the outer bark of the
spiritual life and stopped short with that.
4. "Here, monks, some clansman goes forth out of faith from the
household life into homelessness, considering: T am a victim of birth,
aging, and death, of sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair;
I am a victim of suffering, a prey to suffering. Surely an ending of this
whole mass of suffering can be known.' When he has gone forth thus,
he acquires gain, honor, and renown. He is not pleased with that gain,
honor, and renown, and his intention is not fulfilled.... Being diligent,
he achieves the attainment of moral discipline. He is pleased with that
attainment of moral discipline, but his intention is not fulfilled. He
does not, on account of it, laud himself and disparage others. He does
not become intoxicated with that attainment of moral discipline; he
does not grow negligent and fall into negligence. Being diligent, he
achieves the attainment of concentration. He is pleased with that
attainment of concentration and his intention is fulfilled. On account of
it he lauds himself and disparages others thus: T am concentrated; my
mind is unified; but these other monks are scatter-minded, with their
minds astray' He becomes intoxicated with that attainment of concen-
tration, grows negligent, falls into negligence, and being negligent, he
lives in suffering.
"Suppose a man needing heartwood, seeking heartwood, wandering
in search of heartwood, came to a great tree standing possessed of
heartwood. Passing over its heartwood and its sapwood, he would cut
off its inner bark and take it away thinking it was heartwood. Then a
man with good sight, seeing him, might say: 'This good man did not
know the heartwood ... or the twigs and leaves. Thus, while needing
heartwood ... he cut off its inner bark and took it away thinking it was
236 In the Buddha's Words
heartwood. Whatever it was this good man had to make with heart-
wood, his purpose will not be served/ So too is it with this monk who
becomes intoxicated with that attainment of concentration. This monk
is called one who has taken the inner bark of the spiritual life and
stopped short with that.
5. "Here, monks, some clansman goes forth out of faith from the
household life into homelessness, considering: 'I am a victim of birth,
aging, and death, of sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair;
I am a victim of suffering, a prey to suffering. Surely an ending of this
whole mass of suffering can be known.' When he has gone forth thus,
he acquires gain, honor, and renown. He is not pleased with that gain,
honor, and renown, and his intention is not fulfilled.... Being diligent,
he achieves the attainment of moral discipline. He is pleased with that
attainment of moral discipline, but his intention is not fulfilled....
Being diligent, he achieves the attainment of concentration. He is
pleased with that attainment of concentration, but his intention is not
fulfilled. He does not, on account of it, laud himself and disparage
others. He does not become intoxicated with that attainment of con-
centration; he does not grow negligent and fall into negligence. Being
diligent, he achieves knowledge and vision.
4
He is pleased with that
knowledge and vision and his intention is fulfilled. On account of it
he lauds himself and disparages others thus: T live knowing and see-
ing, but these other monks live unknowing and unseeing.' He
becomes intoxicated with that knowledge and vision, grows negli-
gent, falls into negligence, and being negligent, he lives in suffering.
"Suppose a man needing heartwood, seeking heartwood, wandering
in search of heartwood, came to a great tree standing possessed of
heartwood. Passing over its heartwood, he would cut off its sapwood
and take it away thinking it was heartwood. Then a man with good
sight, seeing him, might say: 'This good man did not know the heart-
wood ... or the twigs and leaves. Thus, while needing heartwood ... he
cut off its sapwood and took it away thinking it was heartwood. What-
ever it was this good man had to make with heartwood, his purpose
will not be served.' So too is it with this monk who becomes intoxi-
cated with that knowledge and vision. This monk is called one who has
taken the sapwood of the spiritual life and stopped short with that.
6. "Here, monks, some clansman goes forth out of faith from the
household life into homelessness, considering: T am a victim of birth,
The Path to Liberation 237
aging, and death, of sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair;
I am a victim of suffering, a prey to suffering. Surely an ending of this
whole mass of suffering can be known.' When he has gone forth thus,
he acquires gain, honor, and renown. He is not pleased with that gain,
honor, and renown, and his intention is not fulfilled.... When he is dili-
gent, he achieves the attainment of moral discipline. He is pleased with
that attainment of moral discipline, but his intention is not fulfilled....
When he is diligent, he achieves the attainment of concentration. He is
pleased with that attainment of concentration, but his intention is not ful-
filled. ... When he is diligent, he achieves knowledge and vision. He is
pleased with that knowledge and vision, but his intention is not fulfilled.
He does not, on account of it, laud himself and disparage others. He
does not become intoxicated with that knowledge and vision; he does
not grow negligent and fall into negligence. Being diligent, he attains
perpetual emancipation. And it is impossible for that monk to fall away
from that perpetual liberation.
5
"Suppose a man needing heartwood, seeking heartwood, wandering
in search of heartwood, came to a great tree standing possessed of
heartwood, and cutting off only its heartwood, he would take it away
knowing it was heartwood. Then a man with good sight, seeing him,
might say: 'This good man knew the heartwood, the sapwood, the
inner bark, the outer bark, and the twigs and leaves. Thus, while need-
ing heartwood, seeking heartwood, wandering in search of heartwood,
he came to a great tree standing possessed of heartwood, and cutting
off only its heartwood, he took it away knowing it was heartwood.
Whatever it was this good man had to make with heartwood, his pur-
pose will be served.' So too is it with this monk who attains perpetual
liberation.
7. "So this spiritual life, monks, does not have gain, honor, and
renown for its benefit, or the attainment of moral discipline for its ben-
efit, or the attainment of concentration for its benefit, or knowledge
and vision for its benefit. But it is this unshakable liberation of mind
that is the goal of this spiritual life, its heartwood, and its end."
6
That is what the Blessed One said. The monks were satisfied and
delighted in the Blessed One's words.
(MN 29: Mahasaropama Sutta; 1192-97)
238 In the Buddha's Words
(3) The Fading Away of Lust
"Monks, if wanderers of other sects ask you: Tor what purpose,
friends, is the spiritual life lived under the ascetic Gotama?'—being
asked thus, you should answer them thus: It is, friends, for the fading
away of lust
7
that the spiritual life is lived under the Blessed One.'
"Then, monks, if the wanderers of other sects ask you: 'But, friends,
is there a path, a way for the fading away of lust?'—being asked thus,
you should answer them thus: 'There is a path, friends, a way for the
fading away of lust.'
"And what, monks, is that path, that way for the fading away of
lust? It is this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view, right intention,
right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindful-
ness, right concentration. This is the path, the way for the fading away
of lust.
"Being asked thus, monks, you should answer those wanderers of
other sects in such a way.
"[Or else you may answer them:] 'It is, friends, for the abandoning
of the fetters ... for the uprooting of the underlying tendencies ... for
the full understanding of the course [of samsara] ... for the destruction
of the taints ... for the realization of the fruit of true knowledge and lib-
eration ... for the sake of knowledge and vision ... for the sake of final
Nibbana without clinging that the spiritual life is lived under the
Blessed One.'
"Then, monks, if the wanderers of other sects ask you: 'But, friends,
is there a path, a way for attaining final Nibbana without clinging?'
being asked thus, you should answer them thus: 'There is a path,
friends, a way for attaining final Nibbana without clinging.'
"And what, monks, is that path, that way for attaining final Nibbana
without clinging? It is this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ...
right concentration. This is the path, the way for attaining final
Nibbana without clinging.
"Being asked thus, monks, you should answer those wanderers of
other sects in such a way."
(SN 45:41-48, combined; V 27-29)
The Path to Liberation 239
2. ANALYSIS OF THE EIGHTFOLD PATH
"Monks, I will teach you the Noble Eightfold Path, and I will analyze
it for you. Listen and attend closely; I will speak."
"Yes, venerable sir," those monks replied. The Blessed One said this:
"And what, monks, is the Noble Eightfold Path? Right view, right
intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right
mindfulness, and right concentration.
"And what, monks, is right view? Knowledge of suffering, knowl-
edge of the origin of suffering, knowledge of the cessation of suffering,
knowledge of the way leading to the cessation of suffering: this is
called right view.
"And what, monks, is right intention? Intention of renunciation,
intention of non-ill will, intention of harmlessness: this is called right
intention.
"And what, monks, is right speech? Abstinence from false speech,
abstinence from malicious speech, abstinence from harsh speech, absti-
nence from idle chatter: this is called right speech.
"And what, monks, is right action? Abstinence from the destruction
of life, abstinence from taking what is not given, abstinence from sex-
ual misconduct: this is called right action.
"And what, monks, is right livelihood? Here a noble disciple, hav-
ing abandoned a wrong mode of livelihood, earns his living by a right
livelihood: this is called right livelihood.
"And what, monks, is right effort? Here, monks, a monk generates
desire for the nonarising of unarisen evil unwholesome states; he
makes an effort, arouses energy, applies his mind, and strives. He gen-
erates desire for the abandoning of arisen evil unwholesome states....
He generates desire for the arising of unarisen wholesome states.... He
generates desire for the continuation of arisen wholesome states, for
their nondecline, increase, expansion, and fulfillment by development;
he makes an effort, arouses energy, applies his mind, and strives. This
is called right effort.
"And what, monks is right mindfulness? Here, monks, a monk
dwells contemplating the body in the body, ardent, clearly compre-
hending, mindful, having removed longing and dejection in regard to
the world. He dwells contemplating feelings in feelings, ardent, clearly
comprehending, mindful, having removed longing and dejection in
240 In the Buddha's Words
regard to the world. He dwells contemplating mind in mind, ardent,
clearly comprehending, mindful, having removed longing and dejec-
tion in regard to the world. He dwells contemplating phenomena
in phenomena, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful, having
removed longing and dejection in regard to the world. This is called
right mindfulness.
"And what, monks, is right concentration? Here, monks, secluded
from sensual pleasures, secluded from unwholesome states, a monk
enters and dwells in the first jhana, which is accompanied by thought
and examination, with rapture and happiness born of seclusion. With
the subsiding of thought and examination, he enters and dwells in the
second jhana, which has internal confidence and unification of mind,
is without thought and examination, and has rapture and happiness
born of concentration. With the fading away as well of rapture, he
dwells equanimous and, mindful and clearly comprehending, he expe-
riences happiness with the body; he enters and dwells in the third
jhana of which the noble ones declare: 'He is equanimous, mindful,
one who dwells happily.' With the abandoning of pleasure and pain,
and with the previous passing away of joy and dejection, he enters and
dwells in the fourth jhana, which is neither painful nor pleasant and
includes the purification of mindfulness by equanimity. This is called
right concentration."
(SN
45:8; V
8-10)
3. GOOD FRIENDSHIP
Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling
among the Sakyans where there was a town of the Sakyans named
Nagaraka. Then the Venerable Ananda approached the Blessed One,
paid homage to him, sat down to one side, and said:
"Venerable sir, this is half of the spiritual life, that is, good friendship,
good companionship, good comradeship."
8
"Not so, Ananda! Not so, Ananda! This is the entire spiritual life,
Ananda, that is, good friendship, good companionship, good comrade-
ship. When a monk has a good friend, a good companion, a good com-
rade, it is to be expected that he will develop and cultivate the Noble
Eightfold Path.
The Path to Liberation 241
"And how, Ananda, does a monk with a good friend, a good com-
panion, a good comrade, develop and cultivate the Noble Eightfold
Path? Here, Ananda, a monk develops right view, which is based upon
seclusion, dispassion, and cessation, maturing in release. He develops
right intention ... right speech ... right action ... right livelihood ...
right effort... right mindfulness ... right concentration, which is based
upon seclusion, dispassion, and cessation, maturing in release. It is in
this way, Ananda, that a monk with a good friend, a good companion,
a good comrade, develops and cultivates the Noble Eightfold Path.
"By the following method too, Ananda, it may be understood how
the entire spiritual life is good friendship, good companionship, good
comradeship: by relying upon me as a good friend, Ananda, beings
subject to birth are freed from birth; beings subject to aging are freed
from aging; beings subject to death are freed from death; beings sub-
ject to sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair are freed from
sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair. By this method,
Ananda, it may be understood how the entire spiritual life is good
friendship, good companionship, good comradeship."
(SN
45:2; V
2-3)
4. THE GRADUATED TRAINING
1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living at
Savatthi in Jeta's Grove, Anathapindika's Park.
2. Now on that occasion the brahmin Janussoni was driving out of
Savatthi in the middle of the day in an all-white chariot drawn by
white mares. He saw the wanderer Pilotika coming in the distance and
asked him: "Now where is Master Vacchayana coming from in the
middle of the day?"
9
"Sir, I am coming from the presence of the ascetic Gotama."
"What does Master Vacchayana think of the ascetic Gotama's lucid-
ity of wisdom? He is wise, is he not?"
"Sir, who am I to know the ascetic Gotama's lucidity of wisdom?
One would surely have to be his equal to know the ascetic Gotama's
lucidity of wisdom."
"Master Vacchayana praises the ascetic Gotama with high praise
indeed."
242 In the Buddha's Words
"Sir, who am I to praise the ascetic Gotama? The ascetic Gotama is
praised by the praised as best among devas and humans."
"What reasons does Master Vacchayana see that he has such firm
confidence in the ascetic Gotama?"
3. "Sir, suppose a wise elephant hunter were to enter an elephant
wood and were to see in the elephant wood a big elephant's footprint,
long in extent and broad across. He would come to the conclusion:
'Indeed, this is a big bull elephant.' So too, when I saw four footprints
of the ascetic Gotama, I came to the conclusion: The Blessed One is
perfectly enlightened, the Dhamma is well expounded by the Blessed
One, the Sahgha is practicing the good way.' What are the four?
4. "Sir, I have seen here certain learned nobles who were clever,
knowledgeable about the doctrines of others, as sharp as hairsplitting
marksmen; they wander about, as it were, demolishing the views of
others with their sharp wits. When they hear: 'The ascetic Gotama will
visit such and such a village or town,' they formulate a question thus:
'We will go to the ascetic Gotama and ask him this question. If he is
asked like this, he will answer like this, and so we will refute his doc-
trine in this way; and if he is asked like that, he will answer like that,
and so we will refute his doctrine in that way'
"They hear: 'The ascetic Gotama has come to visit such and such a
village or town.' They go to the ascetic Gotama, and the ascetic Gotama
instructs, urges, rouses, and gladdens them with a talk on the
Dhamma. After they have been instructed, urged, roused, and glad-
dened by the ascetic Gotama with a talk on the Dhamma, they do not
so much as ask him the question, so how should they refute his doc-
trine? In actual fact, they become his disciples. When I saw this first
footprint of the ascetic Gotama, I came to the conclusion: 'The Blessed
One is perfectly enlightened, the Dhamma is well expounded by the
Blessed One, the Sahgha is practicing the good way.'
5. "A gain, I have seen certain learned brahmins who were clever
In actual fact, they too become his disciples. When I saw this second
footprint of the ascetic Gotama, I came to the conclusion: 'The Blessed
One is perfectly enlightened.
6. "Again, I have seen certain learned householders who were
clever.... In actual fact, they too become his disciples. When I saw this
third footprint of the ascetic Gotama, I came to the conclusion: 'The
Blessed One is perfectly enlightened....'
The Path to Liberation 243
7. "Again, I have seen certain learned ascetics who were clever....
They do not so much as ask him the question, so how should they
refute his doctrine? In actual fact, they ask the ascetic Gotama to allow
them to go forth from the household life into homelessness, and he
gives them the going forth. Not long after they have gone forth,
dwelling alone, withdrawn, diligent, ardent, and resolute, by realiz-
ing it for themselves with direct knowledge they here and now enter
upon and dwell in that supreme goal of the spiritual life for the sake
of which clansmen rightly go forth from the household life into home-
lessness. They say thus: 'We were very nearly lost, we very nearly per-
ished, for formerly we claimed that we were ascetics though we were
not really ascetics; we claimed that we were brahmins though we were
not really brahmins; we claimed that we were arahants though we
were not really arahants. But now we are ascetics, now we are brah-
mins, now we are arahants.' When I saw this fourth footprint of the
ascetic Gotama, I came to the conclusion: 'The Blessed One is perfectly
enlightened....'
"When I saw these four footprints of the ascetic Gotama, I came to
the conclusion: 'The Blessed One is perfectly enlightened, the Dhamma
is well expounded by the Blessed One, the Sahgha is practicing the
good way.'"
8. When this was said, the brahmin Janussoni got down from his all-
white chariot drawn by white mares, and arranging his upper robe on
one shoulder, he extended his hands in reverential salutation toward
the Blessed One and uttered this exclamation three times: "Homage to
the Blessed One, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One! Homage
to the Blessed One, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One!
Homage to the Blessed One, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened
One! Perhaps some time or other I might meet Master Gotama and
have some conversation with him."
9. Then the brahmin Janussoni went to the Blessed One and
exchanged greetings with him. When this courteous and amiable talk
was finished, he sat down to one side and related his entire conversa-
tion with the wanderer Pilotika. Thereupon the Blessed One told him:
"At this point, brahmin, the simile of the elephant's footprint has not
yet been completed in detail. As to how it is completed in detail, listen
and attend carefully to what I shall say."—"Yes, sir," the brahmin
Janussoni replied. The Blessed One said this:
244 In the Buddha's Words
10. "Brahmin, suppose an elephant hunter were to enter an elephant
wood and were to see in the elephant wood a big elephant's footprint,
long in extent and broad across. A wise elephant hunter would not yet
come to the conclusion: 'Indeed, this is a big bull elephant.' Why is
that? In an elephant wood there are small she-elephants that leave a big
footprint, and this might be one of their footprints. He follows it and
sees in the elephant wood a big elephant's footprint, long in extent and
broad across, and some scrapings high up. A wise elephant hunter
would not yet come to the conclusion: 'Indeed, this is a big bull ele-
phant.' Why is that? In an elephant wood there are tall she-elephants
that have prominent teeth and leave a big footprint, and this might be
one of their footprints. He follows it further and sees in the elephant
wood a big elephant's footprint, long in extent and broad across, and
some scrapings high up, and marks made by tusks. A wise elephant
hunter would not yet come to the conclusion: 'Indeed, this is a big bull
elephant.' Why is that? In an elephant wood there are tall she-elephants
that have tusks and leave a big footprint, and this might be one of their
footprints. He follows it further and sees in the elephant wood a big
elephant's footprint, long in extent and broad across, and some scrap-
ings high up, and marks made by tusks, and broken-off branches. And
he sees that bull elephant at the root of a tree or in the open, walking
about, sitting, or lying down. He comes to the conclusion: 'This is that
big bull elephant.'
11. "So too, brahmin, here a Tathagata appears in the world, an ara-
hant, perfectly enlightened, perfect in true knowledge and conduct,
fortunate, knower of the world, unsurpassed leader of persons to be
tamed, teacher of devas and humans, the Enlightened One, the Blessed
One. Having realized with his own direct knowledge this world with
its devas, Mara, and Brahma, this population with its ascetics and brah-
mins, with its devas and humans, he makes it known to others. He
teaches a Dhamma that is good in the beginning, good in the middle,
and good in the end, with the right meaning and expression; he reveals
a holy life that is perfectly complete and purified.
12. "A householder or householder's son or one born in some other
clan hears that Dhamma. On hearing the Dhamma he acquires faith in
the Tathagata. Possessing that faith, he considers thus: 'Household life
is crowded and dusty; life gone forth is wide open. It is not easy, while
living in a home, to lead the spiritual life utterly perfect and pure as a
The Path to
polished shell. Suppose I shave off my hair and beard, put on the ochre
robe, and go forth from the household life into homelessness.' On a later
occasion, abandoning a small or a large fortune, abandoning a small or
a large circle of relatives, he shaves off his hair and beard, puts on the
ochre robe, and goes forth from the household life into homelessness.
13. "Having thus gone forth and possessing the monk's training and
way of life, abandoning the destruction of life, he abstains from the
destruction of life; with rod and weapon laid aside, conscientious, mer-
ciful, he dwells compassionate to all living beings. Abandoning the
taking of what is not given, he abstains from taking what is not given;
taking only what is given, expecting only what is given, by not steal-
ing he dwells in purity. Abandoning sexual relations, he observes
celibacy, living apart, refraining from the coarse practice of sexual inter-
course.
"Abandoning false speech, he abstains from false speech; he speaks
truth, adheres to truth, is trustworthy and reliable, one who is no
deceiver of the world. Abandoning malicious speech, he abstains from
malicious speech; he does not repeat elsewhere what he has heard here
in order to divide [those people] from these, nor does he repeat to these
people what he has heard elsewhere in order to divide [these people]
from those; thus he is one who reunites those who are divided, a pro-
moter of friendships, who enjoys concord, rejoices in concord, delights
in concord, a speaker of words that promote concord. Abandoning
harsh speech, he abstains from harsh speech; he speaks such words as
are gentle, pleasing to the ear, and loveable, as go to the heart, are cour-
teous, desired by many and agreeable to many. Abandoning idle chat-
ter, he abstains from idle chatter; he speaks at the right time, speaks
what is fact, speaks on what is good, speaks on the Dhamma and the
Discipline; at the right time he speaks such words as are worth record-
ing, reasonable, moderate, and beneficial.
"He abstains from injuring seeds and plants. He eats only one meal
a day, abstaining from eating at night and outside the proper time.
10
He abstains from dancing, singing, music, and unsuitable shows. He
abstains from wearing garlands, smartening himself with scent, and
embellishing himself with unguents. He abstains from high and large
couches. He abstains from accepting gold and silver. He abstains from
accepting raw grain. He abstains from accepting raw meat. He abstains
from accepting women and girls. He abstains from accepting men and
246 In the Buddha's Words
women slaves. He abstains from accepting goats and sheep. He
abstains from accepting fowl and pigs. He abstains from accepting ele-
phants, cattle, horses, and mares. He abstains from accepting fields
and land. He abstains from going on errands and running messages.
He abstains from buying and selling. He abstains from false weights,
false metals, and false measures. He abstains from accepting bribes,
deceiving, defrauding, and trickery. He abstains from wounding, mur-
dering, binding, brigandage, plunder, and violence.
14. "He becomes content with robes to protect his body and with
almsfood to maintain his stomach, and wherever he goes, he sets out
taking only these with him. Just as a bird, wherever it goes, flies with
its wings as its only burden, so too the monk becomes content with
robes to protect his body and with almsfood to maintain his stomach,
and wherever he goes, he sets out taking only these with him. Possess-
ing this aggregate of noble moral discipline, he experiences within
himself the bliss of blamelessness.
15. "On seeing a form with the eye, he does not grasp at its signs
and features.
11
Since, if he left the eye faculty unguarded, evil unwhole-
some states of longing and dejection might invade him, he practices the
way of its restraint, he guards the eye faculty, he undertakes the
restraint of the eye faculty. On hearing a sound with the ear ... On
smelling an odor with the nose ... On tasting a flavor with the tongue
... On feeling a tactile object with the body ... On cognizing a mental
phenomenon with the mind, he does not grasp at its signs and fea-
tures. Since, if he left the mind faculty unguarded, evil unwholesome
states of longing and dejection might invade him, he practices the way
of its restraint, he guards the mind faculty, he undertakes the restraint
of the mind faculty. Possessing this noble restraint of the sense facul-
ties, he experiences within himself an unsullied bliss.
16. "He becomes one who acts with clear comprehension when going
forward and returning; who acts with clear comprehension when look-
ing ahead and looking away; who acts with clear comprehension when
flexing and extending his limbs; who acts with clear comprehension
when wearing his robes and carrying his outer robe and bowl; who acts
with clear comprehension when eating, drinking, chewing, and tast-
ing; who acts with clear comprehension when defecating and urinating;
who acts with clear comprehension when walking, standing, sitting,
falling asleep, waking up, talking, and keeping silent.
The Tt
17. "Possessing this aggregate of noble moral discipline, and this
noble restraint of the faculties, and possessing this noble mindfulness
and clear comprehension, he resorts to a secluded resting place: the
forest, the root of a tree, a mountain, a ravine, a hillside cave, a charnel
ground, a jungle thicket, an open space, a heap of straw.
18. "On returning from his almsround, after his meal he sits down,
folding his legs crosswise, setting his body erect, and establishing
mindfulness before him. Abandoning longing for the world, he dwells
with a mind free from longing; he purifies his mind from longing.
12
Abandoning ill will and hatred, he dwells with a mind free from ill
will, compassionate for the welfare of all living beings; he purifies his
mind from ill will and hatred. Abandoning dullness and drowsiness,
he dwells free from dullness and drowsiness, percipient of light, mind-
ful and clearly comprehending; he purifies his mind from dullness and
drowsiness. Abandoning restlessness and remorse, he dwells free from
agitation with a mind inwardly peaceful; he purifies his mind from
restlessness and remorse. Abandoning doubt, he dwells having gone
beyond doubt, unperplexed about wholesome states; he purifies his
mind from doubt.
19. "Having thus abandoned these five hindrances, defilements of
the mind that weaken wisdom, secluded from sensual pleasures,
secluded from unwholesome states, he enters and dwells in the first
jhana, which is accompanied by thought and examination, with rap-
ture and happiness born of seclusion. This, brahmin, is called a foot-
print of the Tathagata, something scraped by the Tathagata, something
marked by the Tathagata, but a noble disciple does not yet come to the
conclusion: 'The Blessed One is perfectly enlightened, the Dhamma is
well expounded by the Blessed One, the Sahgha is practicing the good
way.'
13
20. "Again, with the subsiding of thought and examination, he enters
and dwells in the second jhana, which has internal confidence and uni-
fication of mind, is without thought and examination, and has rapture
and happiness born of concentration. This too, brahmin, is called a
footprint of the Tathagata ... but a noble disciple does not yet come to
the conclusion: 'The Blessed One is perfectly enlightened....'
21. "Again, with the fading away as well of rapture, he dwells
equanimous and, mindful and clearly comprehending, he experiences
happiness with the body; he enters and dwells in the third jhana of
248 In the Buddha's Words
which the noble ones declare: 'He is equanimous, mindful, one who
dwells happily.' This too, brahmin, is called a footprint of the Tathagata
... but a noble disciple does not yet come to the conclusion: 'The
Blessed One is perfectly enlightened....'
22. "Again, with the abandoning of pleasure and pain, and with the
previous passing away of joy and dejection, he enters and dwells in
the fourth jhana, which is neither painful nor pleasant and includes
the purification of mindfulness by equanimity. This too, brahmin, is
called a footprint of the Tathagata ... but a noble disciple does not yet
come to the conclusion: 'The Blessed One is perfectly enlightened....'
23. "When his mind is thus concentrated, purified, bright, unblem-
ished, rid of defilement, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to
imperturbability, he directs it to knowledge of the recollection of past
lives. He recollects his manifold past lives, that is, one birth, two births,
three births, four births, five births, ten births, twenty births, thirty
births, forty births, fifty births, a hundred births, a thousand births, a
hundred thousand births, many eons of world-contraction, many eons
of world-expansion, many eons of world-contraction and expansion:
'There I was so named, of such a clan, with such an appearance, such
was my nutriment, such my experience of pleasure and pain, such my
life-term; and passing away from there, I was reborn elsewhere; and
there too I was so named, of such a clan, with such an appearance,
such was my nutriment, such my experience of pleasure and pain, such
my life-term; and passing away from there, I was reborn here.' Thus
with their aspects and particulars he recollects his manifold past lives.
This too, brahmin, is called a footprint of the Tathagata ... but a noble
disciple does not yet come to the conclusion: 'The Blessed One is per-
fectly enlightened.
24. "When his mind is thus concentrated, purified, bright, unblem-
ished, rid of defilement, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to
imperturbability, he directs it to knowledge of the passing away and
rebirth of beings. With the divine eye, which is purified and surpasses
the human, he sees beings passing away and being reborn, inferior and
superior, fair and ugly, fortunate and unfortunate. He understands
how beings pass on according to their actions thus: 'These beings who
behaved wrongly by body, speech, and mind, who reviled the noble
ones, held wrong view, and undertook actions based on wrong view,
with the breakup of the body, after death, have been reborn in a state
The Path to Liberation 249
of misery, in a bad destination, in the lower world, in hell; but these
beings who behaved well by body, speech, and mind, who did not
revile the noble ones, who held right view, and undertook action based
on right view, with the breakup of the body, after death, have been
reborn in a good destination, in a heavenly world.' Thus with the
divine eye, which is purified and surpasses the human, he sees beings
passing away and being reborn, inferior and superior, fair and ugly,
fortunate and unfortunate, and he understands how beings pass on
according to their actions. This too, brahmin, is called a footprint of
the Tathagata ... but a noble disciple does not yet come to the conclu-
sion: 'The Blessed One is perfectly enlightened....'
25. "When his mind is thus concentrated, purified, bright, unblem-
ished, rid of defilement, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to
imperturbability, he directs it to knowledge of the destruction of the
taints. He understands as it really is: 'This is suffering. This is the ori-
gin of suffering. This is the cessation of suffering. This is the way lead-
ing to the cessation of suffering.' He understands as it really is: 'These
are the taints. This is the origin of the taints. This is the cessation of the
taints. This is the way leading to the cessation of the taints.'
"This too, brahmin, is called a footprint of the Tathagata, something
scraped by the Tathagata, something marked by the Tathagata, but a
noble disciple still has not yet come to the conclusion: 'The Blessed
One is perfectly enlightened, the Dhamma is well expounded by the
Blessed One, the Sahgha is practicing the good way.' Rather, he is in the
process of coming to this conclusion.
14
26. "When he knows and sees thus, his mind is liberated from the
taint of sensual desire, from the taint of existence, and from the taint of
ignorance. When it is liberated there comes the knowledge: 'It is liber-
ated.' He understands: 'Birth is destroyed, the spiritual life has been
lived, what had to be done has been done, there is no more coming
back to any state of being.'
"This too, brahmin, is called a footprint of the Tathagata, something
scraped by the Tathagata, something marked by the Tathagata. It is at
this point that a noble disciple has come to the conclusion: 'The Blessed
One is perfectly enlightened, the Dhamma is well expounded by the
Blessed One, the Sahgha is practicing the good way.'
15
And it is at this
point, brahmin, that the simile of the elephant's footprint has been
completed in detail."
250 In the Buddha's Words
27. When this was said, the brahmin Janussoni said to the Blessed
One: "Magnificent, Master Gotama! Magnificent, Master Gotama!
Master Gotama has made the Dhamma clear in many ways, as though
he were turning upright what had been overthrown, revealing what
was hidden, showing the way to one who was lost, or holding up a
lamp in the dark so those with good eyesight can see forms. I now go
for refuge to Master Gotama, to the Dhamma, and to the Sahgha of
monks. Let Master Gotama accept me as a lay follower who has gone
for refuge from today until life's end/'
(MN 27: Culahatthipadopama Sutta; 1175-84)
5. THE HIGHER STAGES OF TRAINING WITH SIMILES
12. "Here, monks, a monk resorts to a secluded resting place: the for-
est, the root of a tree, a mountain, a ravine, a hillside cave, a charnel
ground, a jungle thicket, an open space, a heap of straw.
13. "On returning from his almsround, after his meal he sits down,
folding his legs crosswise, setting his body erect and establishing mind-
fulness before him. Abandoning longing for the world ... [as in preced-
ing text, §18] ... he purifies his mind from doubt.
14. "Monks, suppose a man were to take a loan and undertake busi-
ness, and his business were to succeed so that he could repay all the
money of the old loan, and there would remain enough extra to main-
tain a wife; on considering this, he would be glad and full of joy. Or
suppose a man were afflicted, suffering and gravely ill, and his food
would not agree with him and his body had no strength, but later he
would recover from the affliction and his food would agree with him
and his body would regain strength; on considering this, he would be
glad and full of joy. Or suppose a man were imprisoned, but later he
would be released, safe and secure, with no loss to his property; on
considering this, he would be glad and full of joy. Or suppose a man
were a slave, not self-dependent but dependent on others, unable to go
where he wants, but later on he would be released from slavery, self-
dependent, independent of others, a free man able to go where he
wants; on considering this, he would be glad and full of joy. Or sup-
pose a man with wealth and property were to enter a road across a
desert, but later on he would cross over the desert, safe and secure,
The Path to Liberation 251
with no loss to his property; on considering this, he would be glad and
full of joy. So too, monks, while these five hindrances have not yet been
abandoned in himself, a monk sees them respectively as a debt, illness,
a prison, slavery, and a road across a desert. But when these five hin-
drances have been abandoned in himself, he sees that as freedom from
debt, recovery from illness, release from prison, freedom from slavery,
and a land of safety.
15. "Having abandoned these five hindrances, defilements of the
mind that weaken wisdom, secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded
from unwholesome states, he enters and dwells in the first jhana,
which is accompanied by thought and examination, with rapture and
happiness born of seclusion. He makes the rapture and happiness born
of seclusion drench, steep, fill, and pervade this body, so that there is
no part of his whole body that is not pervaded by the rapture and hap-
piness born of seclusion. Just as a skilled bath man or a bath man's
apprentice heaps bath powder in a metal basin and, sprinkling it grad-
ually with water, kneads it until the moisture wets his ball of bath pow-
der, soaks it, and pervades it inside and out, yet the ball itself does not
ooze; so too, a monk makes the rapture and happiness born of seclu-
sion drench, steep, fill, and pervade this body, so that there is no part
of his whole body that is not pervaded by the rapture and happiness
born of seclusion.
16. "Again, monks, with the subsiding of thought and examination,
he enters and dwells in the second jhana, which has internal confi-
dence and unification of mind, is without thought and examination,
and has rapture and happiness born of concentration. He makes the
rapture and happiness born of concentration drench, steep, fill, and
pervade this body, so that there is no part of his whole body that is not
pervaded by the rapture and happiness born of concentration. Just as
though there were a lake whose waters welled up from below and it
had no inflow from east, west, north, or south, and would not be
replenished from time to time by showers of rain, then the cool fount
of water welling up in the lake would make the cool water drench,
steep, fill, and pervade the lake, so that there would be no part of the
whole lake that is not pervaded by cool water; so too, a monk makes
the rapture and happiness born of concentration drench, steep, fill, and
pervade this body, so that there is no part of his whole body that is not
pervaded by the rapture and happiness born of concentration.
252 In the Buddha's Words
17. "Again, monks, with the fading away as well of rapture, he
dwells equanimous and, mindful and clearly comprehending, he expe-
riences happiness with the body; he enters and dwells in the third
jhana of which the noble ones declare: 'He is equanimous, mindful,
one who dwells happily.' He makes the happiness divested of rapture
drench, steep, fill, and pervade this body, so that there is no part of his
whole body that is not pervaded by the happiness divested of rapture.
Just as, in a pond of blue or red or white lotuses, some lotuses that are
born and grow in the water thrive immersed in the water without ris-
ing out of it, and cool water drenches, steeps, fills, and pervades them
to their tips and their roots, so that there is no part of all those lotuses
that is not pervaded by cool water; so too, a monk makes the happiness
divested of rapture drench, steep, fill, and pervade this body, so that
there is no part of his whole body that is not pervaded by the happi-
ness divested of rapture.
18. "Again, monks, with the abandoning of pleasure and pain, and
with the previous disappearance of joy and dejection, a monk enters
upon and dwells in the fourth jhana, which has neither-pain-nor-
pleasure and purity of mindfulness due to equanimity. He sits per-
vading this body with a pure bright mind, so that there is no part of
his whole body that is not pervaded by the pure bright mind. Just as
though a man were sitting covered from the head down with a white
cloth, so that there would be no part of his whole body that is not per-
vaded by the white cloth; so too, a monk sits pervading this body with
a pure bright mind, so that there is no part of his whole body that is
not pervaded by the pure bright mind.
19. "When his mind is thus concentrated, purified, bright, unblem-
ished, rid of defilements, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to
imperturbability, he directs it to knowledge of the recollection of past
lives. He recollects his manifold past lives, that is, one birth, two births
... [as in preceding text, §23] ... Thus with their aspects and particulars
he recollects his manifold past lives. Just as a man might go from his
own village to another village and then back again to his own village,
he might think: 'I went from my own village to that village, and there
I stood in such a way, sat in such a way, spoke in such a way, kept silent
in such a way; and from that village I went to that other village, and
there I stood in such a way, sat in such a way, spoke in such a way,
kept silent in such a way; and from that village I came back again to my
Fath to
own village.' So too, a monk recollects his manifold past lives.... Thus
with their aspects and particulars he recollects his manifold past lives.
20. "When his mind is thus concentrated, purified, bright, unblem-
ished, rid of defilements, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to
imperturbability, he directs it to knowledge of the passing away and
rebirth of beings ... [as in preceding text, §24] ... Thus with the divine
eye, which is purified and surpasses the human, he sees beings pass-
ing away and being reborn, inferior and superior, fair and ugly, fortu-
nate and unfortunate, and he understands how beings pass on
according to their actions. Just as though there were two houses with
doors and a man with good sight standing there between them saw
people entering the houses and coming out and passing to and fro, so
too, with the divine eye, which is purified and surpasses the human, a
monk sees beings passing away and being reborn ... and he under-
stands how beings pass on according to their actions.
21. "When his mind is thus concentrated, purified, bright, unblem-
ished, rid of defilements, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to
imperturbability, he directs it to knowledge of the destruction of the
taints. He understands as it actually is: 'This is suffering' ... [as in pre-
ceding text, §§25-26] ... He understands: 'Birth is destroyed, the spir-
itual life has been lived, what had to be done has been done, there is no
more coming back to any state of being.'
"Just as if there were a lake in a mountain recess, clear, limpid, and
undisturbed, so that a man with good sight standing on the bank could
see shells, gravel, and pebbles, and also shoals of fish swimming about
and resting, he might think: 'There is this lake, clear, limpid, and undis-
turbed, and there are these shells, gravel, and pebbles, and also these
shoals of fish swimming about and resting.' So too, a monk under-
stands as it actually is: 'This is suffering.'... He understands: 'Birth is
destroyed, the holy life has been lived, what had to be done has been
done, there is no more coming back to any state of being.'"
(from MN 39: Maha Assapura Sutta; 1274-80)
VIII. Mastering the Mind
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INTRODUCTION
Having presented a broad overview of the world-transcending path in
the previous chapter, in this chapter and the next I intend to focus more
specifically on two aspects of this path as described in the Nikayas,
meditation and wisdom. As we have seen, the gradual training is
divided into the three sections of moral discipline, concentration, and
wisdom (see pp. 225-26). Moral discipline begins with the observance
of precepts, which anchor one's actions in principles of conscientious
behavior and moral restraint. The undertaking of precepts—for the
Nikayas, particularly the full code of monastic precepts—is called the
training in the higher moral discipline (adhisllasikkha). Moral discipline,
consistently observed, infuses the mind with the purifying force of
moral virtue, generating joy and deeper confidence in the Dhamma.
Established upon moral discipline, the disciple takes up the practice
of meditation, intended to stabilize the mind and clear away the obsta-
cles to the unfolding of wisdom. Because meditation elevates the mind
beyond its normal level, this phase of practice is called the training in
the higher mind (adhicittasikkha). Because it brings inner stillness and
quietude, it is also called the development of serenity (samathabhavana).
Successful practice results in deep concentration or mental unification
(samadhi), also known as internal serenity of mind (ajjhattam ceto-
samatha). The most eminent types of concentration recognized in the
Nikayas are the four jhanas, which constitute right concentration
(samma samadhi) of the Noble Eightfold Path. Beyond the jhanas lie the
four formless attainments (arupasamapatti), which carry the process of
mental unification to still subtler levels.
The third stage of practice is the training in the higher wisdom
(adhipanhasikkha), designed to awaken direct insight into the true
nature of things as disclosed by the Buddha's teaching. This will be
dealt with in detail in the following chapter.
The first selection below, Text VHI,1, is a miscellany of short epi-
grams that stress the need for mental cultivation. The sayings occur
in pairs. In each pair, the first member signals the dangers of the
257
258 In the Buddha's Words
uncultivated mind, the second extols the benefits of the cultivated
mind. The uncultivated mind is easy prey to the defilements—greed,
hatred, and delusion and their offshoots. The defilements generate
unwholesome kamma, which brings painful results both in this life
and in future lives. Since the defilements are the cause of our suffering
and bondage, the path to liberation necessarily involves a meticulous
process of mental training intended to subdue them and ultimately
uproot them from their nesting place in the deep recesses of the mind.
From development of the mind arise happiness, freedom, and peace.
Development of the mind, for the Nikayas, means the development
of serenity (samatha) and insight (vipassana). Text VIII,2(1) says that
when serenity is developed, it leads to concentration and the liberation
of the mind from such emotional defilements as lust and ill will. When
insight is developed, it leads to the higher wisdom of insight into the
true nature of phenomena and permanently liberates the mind from
ignorance. Thus the two things most needed to master the mind are
serenity and insight.
Since concentration is the basis for wisdom, the Nikayas usually
treat the development of serenity as the precursor to the development
of insight. However, because the aptitudes of meditators differ, sev-
eral suttas allow for alternative approaches to this sequence. Text
VIII,2(2) speaks of four approaches to mental cultivation:
1) The first approach, the classical one, is to develop serenity first
and insight afterward. By "serenity" is meant the jhanas or (according
to the Pali commentaries) a state bordering on the jhanas called
"access" or "threshold" concentration (upacarasamadhi).
2) A second approach is to develop insight first and serenity after-
ward. Since there can be no real insight without concentration, such
meditators—presumably people with sharp intellectual faculties
must initially use concentration as the basis for acquiring insight into
the true characteristics of phenomena. However, it seems that such
concentration, though sufficient for insight, is not strong enough to
allow for a breakthrough to the supramundane path. These medita-
tors must therefore return to the task of unifying the mind before
resuming the work of insight. Such insight, based on concentration,
culminates in the supramundane path.
3) A third approach is to develop serenity and insight in tandem.
Meditators who take this approach first attain a particular level of
Mastering the Mind 259
concentration, such as a jhana or formless attainment, and then employ
it as a basis for insight. Having developed insight, they then return to
concentration, attain a different jhana or formless attainment, and use
that as a basis for insight. Thus they proceed until they reach the supra-
mundane path.
4) The description of the fourth approach is somewhat obscure. The
sutta says that "a monk's mind is seized by agitation about the teach-
ings," and then, some time later, he gains concentration and attains the
supramundane path. This statement suggests a person initially driven
by such intense desire to understand the Dhamma that he or she can-
not focus clearly upon any meditation object. Later, with the aid of cer-
tain supporting conditions, this person manages to subdue the mind,
gain concentration, and attain the supramundane path.
Text VIII,2(3) again confirms that both serenity and insight are nec-
essary, and also indicates the skills needed for their respective practice.
The cultivation of serenity requires skill in steadying, composing, uni-
fying, and concentrating the mind. The cultivation of insight requires
skill in observing, investigating, and discerning conditioned phenom-
ena, spoken of as "formations" (sankhara). In line with the preceding
text, this sutta confirms that some meditators begin by developing inter-
nal serenity of mind, others by developing the higher wisdom of insight
into phenomena, others by developing both in tandem. But while med-
itators may start off differently, eventually they must all strike a healthy
balance between serenity and insight. The exact point of balance
between the two will differ from one person to another, but when a
meditator achieves the appropriate balance, serenity and insight join
forces to issue in the knowledge and vision of the Four Noble Truths.
This knowledge and vision—the world-transcending wisdom—occurs
in four distinct "installments," the four stages of realization which, in
sequence, permanently destroy ignorance along with the affiliated
defilements.
1
Text VIH,2(2) subsumes these defilements under the
expression "the fetters and underlying tendencies."
The main impediments to the development of serenity and insight
are collectively called the "five hindrances," which we already met in
the extended account of the gradual training (see Text VII,4 §18). Text
VHI,3 states that just as different impurities of water prevent us from
clearly seeing the reflection of our face in a bowl of water, so the five
hindrances prevent us from properly understanding our own good
260 In the Buddha's Words
and the good of others. A meditator's initial efforts therefore have to be
devoted to the task of overcoming the hindrances. Once these are over-
come, success is assured in the practice of serenity and insight.
Text VIII,4 compares the successive stages in the purification of the
mind to the refinement of gold. The meditating monk begins by remov-
ing the gross impurities of bodily, verbal, and mental conduct; this is
achieved by moral discipline and vigilant introspection. Then he elim-
inates the middle-level impurities of unwholesome thoughts: thoughts
of sensuality, ill will, and harmfulness. Next come the subtle impurities
of meandering thoughts. Finally, he must eliminate thoughts about the
Dhamma, the subtlest obstacle. When all such distracting thoughts are
removed, the monk attains "mental unification" (ekodibhava), the basis
for the six "direct knowledges" {abhinna) culminating in arahantship,
the knowledge of the destruction of the taints.
The Nikayas sometimes compare the process of training the mind to
the taming of a wild animal. Just as an animal trainer has to use vari-
ous techniques to bring the animal under control, the meditator has to
draw upon various methods to subdue the mind. It is not enough to be
acquainted with one meditation technique; one must be skilled in a
number of methods intended as antidotes to specific mental obstruc-
tions. In Text VIII,5 the Buddha explains five ancillary techniques
here called "signs" (nimitta)—that a monk might deploy to eliminate
unwholesome thoughts connected with lust, hatred, and delusion. One
who succeeds in overcoming distracting thoughts by the use of these
techniques is called "a master of the courses of thought."
The suttas teach various techniques of meditation aimed at inducing
concentration. One popular formula pits specific meditation subjects
against the unwholesome mental states they are intended to rectify.
Thus the meditation on the unattractive nature of the body (see Text
VIH,8 §10) is the remedy for sensual lust; loving-kindness is the rem-
edy for ill will; mindfulness of breathing is the remedy for restlessness;
and the perception of impermanence is the remedy for the conceit "I
am."
2
The perception of impermanence is a subject of insight medita-
tion, the other three subjects of serenity meditation. Loving-kindness
is the first of the four divine abodes (brahmavihara) or immeasurable
states (appamanna) briefly discussed in chapter V: boundless loving-
kindness, compassion, altruistic joy, and equanimity. These are respec-
tively the antidotes to ill will, harmfulness, discontent, and partiality.
Mastering the
Since we already introduced the standard canonical passage on the
divine abodes in connection with meditation as a basis for merit—see
Text V,5(2)—to shed a different spotlight on this practice I have
included here, as Text VIIL6, the famous Simile of the Saw, a passage
that shows loving-kindness in action.
Through the centuries the most popular meditation subjects among
lay Buddhists have probably been the six recollections (anussati): of the
Buddha, the Dhamma, the Sahgha, morality, generosity, and the devas.
Text VIII,7 is an important canonical source for these meditations.
Their themes are especially close to the hearts and everyday experi-
ences of people living household lives in a culture imbued with
Buddhist values. These meditation practices in turn enrich and uplift
their lives, bringing them into closer spiritual contact with the ideals of
religious faith. The first three are primarily devotional recollections
that build upon confidence in the Three Jewels; but while they begin
with faith, they temporarily cleanse the mind of defilements and con-
duce to sustained concentration. The meditation on moral discipline
develops from one's observance of the precepts, a practice aimed at
self-benefit; the recollection of generosity builds upon one's practice of
giving, an altruistic practice; the recollection of the devas is a contem-
plation of the fruits of one's faith, morality, generosity, and wisdom as
they mature in future lives.
The discourse generally considered to offer the most comprehensive
instructions on meditation practice is the Satipatthana Sutta.
3
Two ver-
sions of this sutta exist, a longer version in the Digha Nikaya, a middle-
length version in the Majjhima Nikaya. The former differs from the
latter only by its extended analysis of the Four Noble Truths, which
may have originally been an early commentary incorporated into the
discourse. The middle-length version is included here as Text VIII,8. An
entire chapter in the Samyutta Nikaya, the Satipatthanasamyutta, is
also devoted to this system of meditation.
The Satipatthana Sutta does not recommend a single meditation sub-
ject nor even a single method of meditation. Its purpose, rather, is to
explain how to establish the mode of contemplation needed to arrive
at realization of Nibbana. The appropriate frame of mind to be estab-
lished, as implied by the title of the sutta, is called an "establishment
of mindfulness." The word satipatthana should probably be understood
as a compound of sati, mindfulness, and upatthana, establishment;
262 In the Buddha's Words
hence "establishment of mindfulness" would be the rendering that best
captures the original meaning. According to the standard formula that
accompanies each exercise, a satipatthana is a mode of dwelling
(viharati). This mode of dwelling involves observation of objects in the
proper frame of mind. The frame of mind consists of three positive
qualities: energy (atapa, "ardor"), mindfulness (sati), and clear compre-
hension (sampajanna). The word sati originally meant memory, but in
the present context it signifies recollection of the present, a sustained
awareness of what is happening to us and within us on each occasion
of experience. Mindfulness, in its initial stages, is concerned with keep-
ing the contemplative mind continually on its object, which means
keeping the object continually present to the mind. Mindfulness pre-
vents the mind from slipping away, from drifting off under the sway
of random thoughts into mental proliferation and forgetfulness. Mind-
fulness is often said to occur in close conjunction with "clear compre-
hension," a clear knowledge and understanding of what one is
experiencing.
The opening formula of the sutta says that one engages in this prac-
tice after "having subdued longing and dejection in regard to the
world" (vineyya loke abhijjha-domanassarn). The expression "having sub-
dued" need not be taken to imply that one must first overcome long-
ing and dejection—which, according to the commentary, signify greed
and aversion and thus represent the five hindrances—before one can
start to practice satipatthana. The expression might be understood to
mean that the practice is itself the means of overcoming longing and
dejection. Thus, while subduing the obstructive influences of greed
and aversion, the meditator arouses the positive qualities of energy,
mindfulness, and clear comprehension, and contemplates four objec-
tive domains: the body, feelings, states of mind, and phenomena. It is
these four objective domains that differentiate mindful observation
into four establishments of mindfulness.
The four objective domains divide the expository portion of the
Satipatthana Sutta into four major sections. Two of these sections, the
first and the fourth, have several subdivisions. When the divisions are
added up, we obtain altogether twenty-one meditation subjects. Several
of these can be used as means to develop serenity (samatha), but the
satipatthana system as a whole seems especially designed for the devel-
opment of insight. The main sections with their divisions are as follows:
Mastering the Mind 263
1. Contemplation of the body (kayanupassana). This comprises fourteen
subjects of meditation: mindfulness of breathing; contemplation of
the four postures; clear comprehension of activities; attention to
the unattractive nature of the body (viewed by way of its organs
and tissues); attention to the elements; and nine charnel ground
contemplations, contemplations based on corpses in different
stages of decomposition.
2. Contemplation of feeling (vedananupassana). Feeling is differenti-
ated into three primary types—pleasant, painful, and neither-
painful-nor-pleasant—which are each further distinguished into
carnal and spiritual feelings. However, because these are all
merely different types of feeling, the contemplation of feeling is
considered one subject.
3. Contemplation of mind (cittanupassana). This is one subject of con-
templation—the mind—differentiated into eight pairs of contrast-
ing states of mind.
4. Contemplation of phenomena (dhammanupassana). The word dhamma
here probably signifies phenomena, which are classified into five
categories governed by the Buddha's teaching, the Dhamma. Thus
dhammanupassana has a dual meaning, "dhammas (phenomena)
contemplated by way of the Dhamma (the teaching)." The five
categories are: the five hindrances, the five aggregates, the six
internal and external sense bases, the seven factors of enlighten-
ment, and the Four Noble Truths.
Although not specified in the sutta, a progressive sequence seems to
be implied by the terms describing each contemplation. In mindful-
ness of breathing one moves to subtler levels of quiescence; in contem-
plation of feeling, one moves toward noncarnal feelings that are neither
painful nor pleasant; in contemplation of mind, one moves toward
states of mind that are concentrated and liberated. These all suggest
that progressive contemplation brings enhanced concentration. In the
contemplation of phenomena, the emphasis shifts toward insight. One
begins by observing and overcoming the five hindrances. The over-
coming of the hindrances marks success in concentration. With the
concentrated mind, one contemplates the five aggregates and the six
sense bases. As contemplation gains momentum, the seven factors of
enlightenment become manifest, and the development of the seven
264 In the Buddha's Words
enlightenment factors culminates in knowledge of the Four Noble
Truths. Knowledge of the Four Noble Truths liberates the mind from
the defilements and thus leads to the attainment of Nibbana. Thus this
system of meditation fulfills the potential ascribed to it by the Buddha
of leading directly to the realization of Nibbana.
Each major contemplative exercise is supplemented by an auxiliary
section, a "refrain" with four subdivisions. The first states that the
meditator contemplates the object internally (within his or her own
experience), externally (reflectively considering it as occurring within
the experience of others), and both; this ensures that one obtains a com-
prehensive and balanced view of the object. The second portion states
that the meditator contemplates the object as subject to origination, as
subject to vanishing, and as subject to both origination and vanishing;
this brings to light the characteristic of impermanence and thus leads
to insight into the three characteristics: impermanence, suffering, and
nonself (anicca, dukkha, anatta). The third states that the meditator is
simply aware of the bare object to the extent necessary for constant
mindfulness and knowledge. And the fourth describes the meditator
as dwelling in a state of complete detachment, not clinging to anything
in the world.
In the Satipatthana Sutta, mindfulness of breathing (anapanasati) is
included as merely one meditation subject among others, but the
Nikayas assign it a position of fundamental importance. The Buddha
said that he used mindfulness of breathing as his main meditation sub-
ject for the attainment of enlightenment (see SN 54:8; V 317). During his
teaching career he occasionally went into seclusion to devote himself
to "the concentration gained through mindfulness of breathing" and he
confers on it a unique honor by calling it "the Tathagata's dwelling"
(SN 54:11; V 326).
Mindfulness of breathing is the subject of an entire chapter in the
Samyutta Nikaya (SN 54, Anapanasamyutta). Whereas the Satipat-
thana Sutta explains mindfulness of breathing by a four-step formula,
the suttas in this collection expand its practice to sixteen steps. Text
VIII,9, from the Anapanasamyutta, describes the sixteen steps. Since
these steps are not necessarily sequential but partly overlap, they
might be thought of as facets rather than actual steps. The sixteen facets
are grouped into four tetrads each of which corresponds to one of the
four establishments of mindfulness. The first tetrad contains the four
Mastering the Mind 265
facets mentioned in the Satipatthana Sutta in its section on contempla-
tion of the body, but the other tetrads extend the practice to the contem-
plations of feelings, mind, and phenomena. Thus the development of
mindfulness of breathing can fulfill not just one but ail four establish-
ments of mindfulness. The four establishments of mindfulness, based
on mindfulness of breathing, in turn fulfill the seven factors of enlight-
enment; and these in turn fulfill true knowledge and liberation. This
exposition thus shows mindfulness of breathing to be a complete sub-
ject of meditation that begins with simple attention to the breath and
culminates in the permanent liberation of the mind.
Finally, in Text VHI,10, the Buddha's chief disciple, the Venerable
Sariputta, testifies to his own achievement of mastery over the mind.
In reply to questions from the Venerable Ananda, he explains how he
is able to dwell for a whole day in each of the jhanas and formless
attainments, as well as in the special attainment called the cessation of
perception and feeling (sannavedayitanirodha). In each case, because he
is an arahant, he can do so without grasping these attainments with
thoughts of "I" and "mine."
VIII. MASTERING THE MIND
1. THE MIND IS THE KEY
1. "I do not perceive even one other thing, O monks, that is so unwieldy
as an undeveloped mind. An undeveloped mind is truly unwieldy.
2. "I do not perceive even one other thing, O monks, that is so wieldy
as a developed mind. A developed mind is truly wieldy.
3. "I do not perceive even one other thing, O monks, that leads to
such great harm as an undeveloped mind. An undeveloped mind leads
to great harm.
4. "I do not perceive even one other thing, O monks, that leads to
such great benefit as a developed mind. A developed mind leads to
great benefit.
9. "I do not perceive even one other thing, O monks, that when unde-
veloped and uncultivated entails such great suffering as the mind. The
mind when undeveloped and uncultivated entails great suffering.
10. "I do not perceive even one other thing, O monks, that when
developed and cultivated entails such great happiness as the mind.
The mind when developed and cultivated entails great happiness."
(AN l:iii,l, 2, 3,4,9,10; I 5-6)
2. DEVELOPING A PAIR OF SKILLS
(1) Serenity and Insight
"Two things, O monks, partake of true knowledge. What two? Seren-
ity and insight.
"When serenity is developed, what benefit does one experience? The
mind is developed. When the mind is developed, what benefit does
one experience? All lust is abandoned.
4
"When insight is developed, what benefit does one experience? Wis-
dom is developed. When wisdom is developed, what benefit does one
experience? All ignorance is abandoned.
5
267
268 In the Buddha's Words
"A mind defiled by lust is not liberated; and wisdom defiled by igno-
rance is not developed. Thus, monks, through the fading away of lust
there is liberation of mind; and through the fading away of ignorance
there is liberation by wisdom."
6
(AN
2:
iii,
10;
I 61)
(2) Four Ways to Arahantship
Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Venerable Ananda was
dwelling at Kosambi in Ghosita's monastery. There the Venerable
Ananda addressed the monks thus:
"Friends!"
"Yes, friend," the monks replied. Thereupon the Venerable Ananda
said:
"Friends, whatever monks or nuns declare before me that they have
attained the final knowledge of arahantship, all these do so in one of
four ways. What four?
"Here, friends, a monk develops insight preceded by serenity.
7
While he thus develops insight preceded by serenity, the path arises
in him. He now pursues, develops, and cultivates that path, and
while he is doing so the fetters are abandoned and the underlying
tendencies eliminated.
8
"Or again, friends, a monk develops serenity preceded by insight.
9
While he thus develops serenity preceded by insight, the path arises in
him. He now pursues, develops, and cultivates that path, and while he
is doing so the fetters are abandoned and the underlying tendencies
eliminated.
"Or again, friends, a monk develops serenity and insight joined in
pairs.
10
While he thus develops serenity and insight joined in pairs, the
path arises in him. He now pursues, develops, and cultivates that path,
and while he is doing so the fetters are abandoned and the underlying
tendencies eliminated.
"Or again, friends, a monk's mind is seized by agitation about the
teaching.
11
But there comes a time when his mind becomes internally
steadied, composed, unified, and concentrated; then the path arises in
him. He now pursues, develops, and cultivates that path, and while he
is doing so the fetters are abandoned and the underlying tendencies
eliminated.
Mastering the Mind 269
"Friends, whatever monks or nuns declare before me that they have
attained the final knowledge of arahantship, all these do so in one of
these four ways."
(AN 4:170; II156-57)
(3) Four Kinds of Persons
"These four kinds of persons, O monks, are found existing in the
world. What four?
"Here, monks, a certain person gains internal serenity of mind but
does not gain the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena.
12
Another
person gains the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena but does
not gain internal serenity of mind. Another person gains neither inter-
nal serenity of mind nor the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena.
And another person gains both internal serenity of mind and the
higher wisdom of insight into phenomena.
"Therein, monks, the person who gains internal serenity of mind but
not the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena should approach
one who gains the higher wisdom and inquire of him: 'How, friend,
should formations be seen? How should formations be explored? How
should formations be discerned with insight?'
13
The other then answers
him as he has seen and understood the matter thus: 'Formations
should be seen in such a way; they should be explored in such a way;
they should be discerned with insight in such a way' At a later time
this one gains both internal serenity of mind and the higher wisdom of
insight into phenomena.
"Therein, monks, the person who gains the higher wisdom of insight
into phenomena but not internal serenity of mind should approach
one who gains internal serenity and inquire of him: 'How, friend,
should the mind be steadied? How should the mind be composed?
How should the mind be unified? How should the mind be concen-
trated?' The other then answers him as he has seen and understood
the matter thus: 'The mind should be steadied in such a way, com-
posed in such a way, unified in such a way, concentrated in such a
way.' At a later time this one gains both internal serenity of mind and
the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena.
"Therein, monks, the person who gains neither internal serenity of
mind nor the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena should
270 In the Buddha's Words
approach one who gains both and inquire of him: 'How, friend, should
the mind be steadied?... How, friend, should formations be seen?...'
The other then answers him as he has seen and understood the matter
thus: 'The mind should be steadied in such a way.... Formations should
be seen in such a way....' At a later time this one gains both internal
serenity of mind and the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena.
"Therein, monks, the person who gains both internal serenity of
mind and the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena should estab-
lish himself in just these wholesome states and make a further effort for
the destruction of the taints."
(AN 4:94; II 93-95)
3. THE HINDRANCES TO MENTAL DEVELOPMENT
Then the brahmin Sahgarava approached the Blessed One, exchanged
greetings with him, sat down to one side, and said:
"Master Gotama, why is it that sometimes even those texts that have
been recited over a long period do not recur to the mind, let alone those
that have not been recited? And why is it that sometimes those texts
that have not been recited over a long period recur to the mind, let
alone those that have been recited?"
"Brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by sensual lust,
overwhelmed by sensual lust, and one does not understand as it really
is the escape from arisen sensual lust,
14
on that occasion one neither
knows nor sees as it really is one's own good, or the good of others, or
the good of both. Then even those texts that have been recited over a
long period do not recur to the mind, let alone those that have not been
recited.
"Suppose, brahmin, there is a bowl of water mixed with red, yellow,
blue, or crimson dye. If a man with good sight were to examine his
own facial reflection in it, he would neither know nor see it as it really
is. So too, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by sensual
lust... even those texts that have been recited over a long period do not
recur to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.
"Again, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by ill will,
overwhelmed by ill will, and one does not understand as it really is the
escape from arisen ill will, on that occasion one neither knows nor sees
Mastering the Mind 271
as it really is one's own good, or the good of others, or the good of
both. Then even those texts that have been recited over a long period
do not recur to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.
"Suppose, brahmin, there is a bowl of water being heated over a fire,
bubbling and boiling. If a man with good sight were to examine his
own facial reflection in it, he would neither know nor see it as it really
is. So too, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by ill will
... even those texts that have been recited over a long period do not
recur to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.
"Again, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by dull-
ness and drowsiness, overwhelmed by dullness and drowsiness, and
one does not understand as it really is the escape from arisen dullness
and drowsiness, on that occasion one neither knows nor sees as it really
is one's own good, or the good of others, or the good of both. Then
even those texts that have been recited over a long period do not recur
to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.
"Suppose, brahmin, there is a bowl of water covered over with water
plants and algae. If a man with good sight were to examine his own
facial reflection in it, he would neither know nor see it as it really is. So
too, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by dullness and
drowsiness ... even those texts that have been recited over a long period
do not recur to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.
"Again, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by restless-
ness and remorse, overwhelmed by restlessness and remorse, and one
does not understand as it really is the escape from arisen restlessness
and remorse, on that occasion one neither knows nor sees as it really
is one's own good, or the good of others, or the good of both. Then
even those texts that have been recited over a long period do not recur
to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.
"Suppose, brahmin, there is a bowl of water stirred by the wind, rip-
pling, swirling, churned into wavelets. If a man with good sight were
to examine his own facial reflection in it, he would neither know nor
see it as it really is. So too, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind
obsessed by restlessness and remorse ... even those texts that have
been recited over a long period do not recur to the mind, let alone those
that have not been recited.
"Again, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by doubt,
overwhelmed by doubt, and one does not understand as it really is the
272 In the Buddha's Words
escape from arisen doubt, on that occasion one neither knows nor sees
as it really is one's own good, or the good of others, or the good of
both. Then even those texts that have been recited over a long period
do not recur to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.
"Suppose, brahmin, there is a bowl of water that is turbid, unsettled,
muddy, placed in the dark. If a man with good sight were to examine
his own facial reflection in it, he would neither know nor see it as it
really is. So too, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by
doubt... even those texts that have been recited over a long period do
not recur to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.
"This, brahmin, is the reason why even those texts that have been
recited over a long period do not recur to the mind, let alone those that
have not been recited.
"Brahmin, when one dwells with a mind that is not obsessed by sen-
sual lust, ill will, dullness and drowsiness, restlessness and remorse,
and doubt, on that occasion even those texts that have not been recited
over a long period recur to the mind, let alone those that have been
recited.
"Suppose, brahmin, there is a bowl of water that is not mixed with
dyes; not bubbling and boiling; not covered over with water plants
and algae; not stirred by the wind and churned into wavelets; clear,
serene, limpid, set out in the light. If a man with good sight were to
examine his own facial reflection in it, he would know and see it as it
really is. So too, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind that is not
obsessed by sensual lust, ill will, dullness and drowsiness, restlessness
and remorse, and doubt on that occasion even those texts that have
not been recited over a long period recur to the mind, let alone those
that have been recited.
"This, brahmin, is the reason why even those texts that have not
been recited over a long period recur to the mind, let alone those that
have been recited."...
When this was said, the brahmin Sahgarava said to the Blessed One:
"Magnificent, Master Gotama!... Let Master Gotama accept me as a
lay follower who has gone for refuge from today until life's end."
(SN 46:55, abridged; V 121-26)
Mastering the Mind 273
4. THE REFINEMENT OF THE MIND
"There are, O monks, gross impurities in gold, such as earth and sand,
gravel and grit. Now the goldsmith or his apprentice first pours the
gold into a trough and washes, rinses, and cleans it thoroughly. When
he has done this, there still remain moderate impurities in the gold,
such as fine grit and coarse sand. Then the goldsmith or his apprentice
washes, rinses, and cleans it again. When he has done this, there still
remain minute impurities in the gold, such as fine sand and black dust.
Now the goldsmith or his apprentice repeats the washing, and there-
after only the gold dust remains.
"He now pours the gold into a melting pot, smelts it, and melts it
together. But he does not yet take it out from the vessel, as the dross has
not yet been entirely removed and the gold is not yet quite pliant,
workable, and bright; it is still brittle and does not yet lend itself eas-
ily to molding. But a time comes when the goldsmith or his apprentice
repeats the melting thoroughly, so that the flaws are entirely removed.
The gold is now quite pliant, workable, and bright, and it lends itself
easily to molding. Whatever ornament the goldsmith now wishes to
make of it, be it a diadem, earrings, a necklace, or a golden chain, the
gold can now be used for that purpose.
"It is similar, monks, with a monk devoted to the training in the
higher mind: there are in him gross impurities, namely, bad conduct of
body, speech, and mind. Such conduct an earnest, capable monk aban-
dons, dispels, eliminates, and abolishes.
"When he has abandoned these, there are still impurities of a mod-
erate degree that cling to him, namely, sensual thoughts, thoughts of ill
will, and thoughts of harming.
15
Such thoughts an earnest, capable
monk abandons, dispels, eliminates, and abolishes.
"When he has abandoned these, there are still some subtle impuri-
ties that cling to him, namely, thoughts about his relatives, his home
country, and his reputation. Such thoughts an earnest, capable monk
abandons dispels, eliminates, and abolishes.
"When he has abandoned these, there still remain thoughts about
the teaching.
16
That concentration is not yet peaceful and sublime; it
has not attained to full tranquillity, nor has it achieved mental unifica-
tion; it is maintained by strenuous suppression of the defilements.
"But there comes a time when his mind becomes inwardly steadied,
274 In the Buddha's Words
composed, unified, and concentrated. That concentration is then calm
and refined; it has attained to full tranquillity and achieved mental
unification; it is not maintained by strenuous suppression of the
defilements.
"Then, to whatever mental state realizable by direct knowledge he
directs his mind, he achieves the capacity of realizing that state by
direct knowledge, whenever the necessary conditions obtain.
17
"If he wishes: 'May I wield the various kinds of spiritual power: hav-
ing been one, may I become many; having been many, may I become
one; may I appear and vanish; go unhindered through a wall, through
a rampart, through a mountain as if through space; dive in and out of
the earth as if it were water; walk on water without sinking as if it were
earth; travel through the sky like a bird while seated cross-legged;
touch and stroke with my hand the moon and sun, so powerful and
mighty; exercise mastery with my body even as far as the brahma
world'—he achieves the capacity of realizing that state by direct
knowledge, whenever the necessary conditions obtain.
"If he wishes: 'With the divine ear element, which is purified and
surpasses the human, may I hear both kinds of sounds, the divine and
human, those that are far as well as near'—he achieves the capacity of
realizing that state by direct knowledge, whenever the necessary con-
ditions obtain.
"If he wishes: 'May I understand the minds of other beings, of other
persons, having encompassed them with my own mind. May I under-
stand a mind with lust as a mind with lust; a mind without lust as a
mind without lust; a mind with hatred as a mind with hatred; a mind
without hatred as a mind without hatred; a mind with delusion as a
mind with delusion; a mind without delusion as a mind without delu-
sion; a contracted mind as contracted, and a distracted mind as dis-
tracted; an exalted mind as exalted, and an unexalted mind as
unexalted; a surpassable mind as surpassable, and an unsurpassable
mind as unsurpassable; a concentrated mind as concentrated, and an
unconcentrated mind as unconcentrated; a liberated mind as liberated,
and an unliberated mind as unliberated'—he achieves the capacity of
realizing that state by direct knowledge, whenever the necessary con-
ditions obtain.
"If he wishes, 'May I recollect my manifold past lives ... [see Text
II,3(2)§38] ... with their modes and details'—he achieves the capacity
Mastering the Mind 275
of realizing that state by direct knowledge, whenever the necessary
conditions obtain.
"If he wishes, 'With the divine eye, which is purified and surpasses
the human, may I see beings passing away and being reborn, inferior
and superior, beautiful and ugly, fortunate and unfortunate ... [see
Text II,3(2)§40] ... and understand how beings fare on in accordance
with their action'—he achieves the capacity of realizing that state by
direct knowledge, whenever the necessary conditions obtain.
"If he wishes, 'By the destruction of the taints, may I in this very life
enter and dwell in the taintless liberation of mind, liberation by wis-
dom, realizing it for myself with direct knowledge'—he achieves the
capacity of realizing that state by direct knowledge, whenever the nec-
essary conditions obtain."
(AN 3:100 §§1-10; 1253-56)
5. THE REMOVAL OF DISTRACTING THOUGHTS
1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living at
Savatthi in Jeta's Grove, Anathapindika's Park. There he addressed the
monks thus: "Monks."—"Venerable sir," they replied. The Blessed One
said this:
2. "Monks, when a monk is pursuing the higher mind, from time to
time he should give attention to five signs.
18
What are the five?
3. (i) "Here, monks, when a monk is giving attention to some sign,
and owing to that sign there arise in him evil unwholesome thoughts
connected with desire, hate, and delusion, then he should give attention
to some other sign connected with what is wholesome.
19
When he gives
attention to some other sign connected with what is wholesome, then
any evil unwholesome thoughts connected with desire, hate, and delu-
sion are abandoned in him and subside. With their abandoning his mind
becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and concentrated. Just
as a skilled carpenter or his apprentice might knock out, remove, and
extract a coarse peg by means of a fine one, so too ... when a monk gives
attention to some other sign connected with what is wholesome ... his
mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and concentrated.
4. (ii) "If, while he is giving attention to some other sign connected
with what is wholesome, there still arise in him evil unwholesome
276 In the Buddha's Words
thoughts connected with desire, hate, and delusion, then he should
examine the danger in those thoughts thus: 'These thoughts are
unwholesome, reprehensible, resulting in suffering.' When he exam-
ines the danger in those thoughts, then any evil unwholesome
thoughts connected with desire, hate, and delusion are abandoned in
him and subside. With their abandoning his mind becomes steadied
internally, composed, unified, and concentrated. Just as a man or a
woman, young, youthful, and fond of ornaments, would be horrified,
humiliated, and disgusted if the carcass of a snake or a dog or a human
being were hung around his or her neck, so too ... when a monk exam-
ines the danger in those thoughts ... his mind becomes steadied inter-
nally, composed, unified, and concentrated.
5. (iii) "If, while he is examining the danger in those thoughts, there
still arise in him evil unwholesome thoughts connected with desire,
hate, and delusion, then he should try to forget those thoughts and
should not give attention to them. When he tries to forget those
thoughts and does not give attention to them, then any evil unwhole-
some thoughts connected with desire, hate, and delusion are aban-
doned in him and subside. With their abandoning his mind becomes
steadied internally, composed, unified, and concentrated. Just as a man
with good eyes who did not want to see forms that had come within
range of sight would either shut his eyes or look away, so too ... when
a monk tries to forget those thoughts and does not give attention to
them ... his mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and
concentrated.
6. (iv) "If, while he is trying to forget those thoughts and is not giv-
ing attention to them, there still arise in him evil unwholesome
thoughts connected with desire, hate, and delusion, then he should
give attention to stilling the thought-formation of those thoughts.
20
When he gives attention to stilling the thought-formation of those
thoughts, then any evil unwholesome thoughts connected with
desire, hate, and delusion are abandoned in him and subside. With
their abandoning his mind becomes steadied internally, composed,
unified, and concentrated. Just as a man walking fast might consider:
'Why am I walking fast? What if I walk slowly?' and he would walk
slowly; then he might consider: 'Why am I walking slowly? What if
I stand?' and he would stand; then he might consider: 'Why am I
standing? What if I sit?' and he would sit; then he might consider:
Mastering the Mind 277
'Why am I sitting? What if I lie down?' and he would lie down. By
doing so he would substitute for each grosser posture one that was
subtler. So too ... when a monk gives attention to stilling the thought-
formation of those thoughts ... his mind becomes steadied internally,
composed, unified, and concentrated.
7. (v) "If, while he is giving attention to stilling the thought-formation
of those thoughts, there still arise in him evil unwholesome thoughts
connected with desire, hate, and delusion, then, with his teeth
clenched and his tongue pressed against the roof of his mouth, he
should beat down, constrain, and crush mind with mind. When, with
his teeth clenched and his tongue pressed against the roof of his
mouth, he beats down, constrains, and crushes mind with mind, then
any evil unwholesome thoughts connected with desire, hate, and
delusion are abandoned in him and subside. With their abandoning
his mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and con-
centrated. Just as a strong man might seize a weaker man by the head
or shoulders and beat him down, constrain him, and crush him, so
too ... when, with his teeth clenched and his tongue pressed against
the roof of his mouth, a monk beats down, constrains, and crushes
mind with mind ... his mind becomes steadied internally, composed,
unified, and concentrated.
8. "Monks, when a monk is giving attention to some sign, and owing
to that sign there arise in him evil unwholesome thoughts connected
with desire, hate, and delusion, then when he gives attention to some
other sign connected with what is wholesome, any such evil unwhole-
some thoughts are abandoned in him and subside, and with their aban-
doning his mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and
concentrated. When he examines the danger in those thoughts ... his
mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and concen-
trated. When he tries to forget those thoughts and does not give atten-
tion to them ... his mind becomes steadied internally, composed,
unified, and concentrated. When he gives attention to stilling the
thought-formation of those thoughts ... his mind becomes steadied
internally, composed, unified, and concentrated. When, with his teeth
clenched and his tongue pressed against the roof of his mouth, he beats
down, constrains, and crushes mind with mind, any such evil
unwholesome thoughts are abandoned in him and subside, and with
their abandoning, his mind becomes steadied internally, composed,
278 In the Buddha's Words
unified, and concentrated. This monk is then called a master of the
courses of thought. He will think whatever thought he wishes to think
and he will not think any thought that he does not wish to think. He
has severed craving, flung off the fetters, and with the complete pene-
tration of conceit he has made an end of suffering."
That is what the Blessed One said. The monks were satisfied and
delighted in the Blessed One's words.
(MN 20: Vitakkasanthana Sutta; 1118-22)
6. THE MIND OF LOVING-KINDNESS
11. "Monks, there are these five courses of speech that others may
use when they address you: their speech may be timely or untimely,
true or untrue, gentle or harsh, connected with good or with harm,
spoken with a mind of loving-kindness or in a mood of hate. When
others address you, their speech may be timely or untimely; when
others address you, their speech may be true or untrue; when others
address you, their speech may be gentle or harsh; when others
address you, their speech may be connected with good or with harm;
when others address you, their speech may be spoken with a mind of
loving-kindness or in a mood of hate. Herein, monks, you should train
thus: 'Our minds will remain unaffected, and we shall utter no bitter
words; we shall abide compassionate for their welfare, with a mind of
loving-kindness, never in a mood of hate. We shall abide pervading
that person with a mind imbued with loving-kindness, and starting
with that person,
21
we shall abide pervading the all-encompassing
world with a mind imbued with loving-kindness, abundant, exalted,
immeasurable, without hostility, and without ill will.' That is how you
should train, monks....
20. "Monks, even if bandits were to sever you savagely limb by limb
with a two-handled saw, he who gave rise to a mind of hate toward
them would not be carrying out my teaching. Herein, monks, you
should train thus: 'Our minds will remain unaffected, and we shall
utter no bitter words; we shall abide compassionate for their welfare,
with a mind of loving-kindness, never in a mood of hate. We shall
abide pervading them with a mind imbued with loving-kindness; and
starting with them, we shall abide pervading the all-encompassing
ng the Mina z/'
world with a mind imbued with loving-kindness, abundant, exalted,
immeasurable, without hostility, and without ill will.' That is how you
should train, monks.
21. "Monks, if you keep this advice on the simile of the saw con-
stantly in mind, do you see any course of speech, trivial or gross, that
you could not endure?"—"No, venerable sir."—"Therefore, monks,
you should keep this advice on the simile of the saw constantly in
mind. That will lead to your welfare and happiness for a long time."
(from MN 21: Kakacupama Sutta; 1126-27,129)
7. THE SIX RECOLLECTIONS
On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at Kapilavatthu in the
Banyan-tree Monastery. Then Mahanama the Sakyan approached the
Blessed One, paid homage to him, sat down to one side, and said:
22
"Venerable sir, in what way does a noble disciple often dwell when
he has arrived at the fruit and understood the teaching?"
23
"When, Mahanama, a noble disciple has arrived at the fruit and
understood the teaching, he often dwells in such a way as this. Here,
a noble disciple recollects the Tathagata thus: 'The Blessed One is an
arahant, perfectly enlightened, accomplished in true knowledge and
conduct, fortunate, knower of the world, unsurpassed leader of per-
sons to be tamed, teacher of devas and humans, the Enlightened One,
the Blessed One.' When a noble disciple recollects the Tathagata thus,
on that occasion his mind is not obsessed by lust, hatred, or delusion;
his mind is straight, with the Tathagata as its object. A noble disciple
whose mind is straight gains the inspiration of the meaning, the inspi-
ration of the Dhamma, gains gladness connected with the Dhamma.
When he is gladdened rapture arises; for one uplifted by rapture the
body becomes calm; one calm in body feels happy; for one who is
happy the mind becomes concentrated. This is called a noble disciple
who dwells evenly amid an uneven population, who dwells without
affliction amid an afflicted population, who has entered upon the
stream of the Dhamma and develops recollection of the Buddha.
"Further, Mahanama, a noble disciple recollects the Dhamma thus:
'The Dhamma is well expounded by the Blessed One, directly visible,
immediate, inviting one to come and see, worthy of application, to be
280 In the Buddha's Words
personally experienced by the wise.' When a noble disciple recollects
the Dhamma thus, on that occasion his mind is not obsessed by lust,
hatred, or delusion; his mind is straight, with the Dhamma as its
object.... This is called a noble disciple who dwells evenly amid an
uneven population, who dwells without affliction amid an afflicted
population, who has entered upon the stream of the Dhamma and
develops recollection of the Dhamma.
"Further, Mahanama, a noble disciple recollects the Sahgha thus:
The Sahgha of the Blessed One's disciples is practicing the good way,
practicing the straight way, practicing the true way, practicing the
proper way; that is, the four pairs of persons, the eight types of indi-
viduals—this Sahgha of the Blessed One's disciples is worthy of gifts,
worthy of hospitality, worthy of offerings, worthy of reverential salu-
tation, the unsurpassed field of merit for the world.' When a noble dis-
ciple recollects the Sahgha thus, on that occasion his mind is not
obsessed by lust, hatred, or delusion; his mind is straight, with the
Sahgha as its object.... This is called a noble disciple who dwells evenly
amid an uneven population, who dwells without affliction amid an
afflicted population, who has entered upon the stream of the Dhamma
and develops recollection of the Sahgha.
"Further, Mahanama, a noble disciple recollects his own moral dis-
cipline thus: T possess the moral virtues dear to the noble ones, unbro-
ken, untorn, unblemished, unmottled, freeing, praised by the wise,
ungrasped, leading to concentration.' When a noble disciple recollects
his own moral discipline thus, on that occasion his mind is not
obsessed by lust, hatred, or delusion; his mind is straight, with virtue
as its object.... This is called a noble disciple who dwells evenly amid
an uneven population, who dwells without affliction amid an afflicted
population, who has entered upon the stream of the Dhamma and
develops recollection of moral discipline.
"Further, Mahanama, a noble disciple recollects his own generosity
thus: 'It is a gain for me, it is well gained by me, that in a population
obsessed by the stain of stinginess, I dwell at home with a mind devoid
of the stain of stinginess, freely generous, open-handed, delighting in
relinquishment, one devoted to charity, delighting in giving and shar-
ing.' When a noble disciple recollects his own generosity thus, on that
occasion his mind is not obsessed by lust, hatred, or delusion; his mind
is straight, with generosity as its object.... This is called a noble disciple
ng tne mina zei
who dwells evenly amid an uneven population, who dwells without
affliction amid an afflicted population, who has entered upon the
stream of the Dhamma and develops recollection of generosity.
"Further, Mahanama, a noble disciple develops the recollection of
the devas thus: 'There are devas in the various heavenly realms.
24
There
is found in me such faith, moral discipline, learning, generosity, and
wisdom as those devas possessed because of which, when they passed
away from this world, they were reborn there.' When a noble disciple
recollects his own faith, moral discipline, learning, generosity, and wis-
dom, as well as those of the devas, on that occasion his mind is not
obsessed by lust, hatred, or delusion; his mind is straight, with the
devas as its object.... This is called a noble disciple who dwells evenly
amid an uneven population, who dwells without affliction amid an
afflicted population, who has entered upon the stream of the Dhamma
and develops recollection of the devas.
"A noble disciple, Mahanama, who has arrived at the fruit and
understood the teaching often dwells in just this way."
(AN 6:10; III 284-88)
8. THE FOUR ESTABLISHMENTS OF MINDFULNESS
1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living in the
Kuru country where there was a town of the Kurus named Kammasa-
dhamma. There he addressed the monks thus: "Monks."—"Venerable
sir," they replied. The Blessed One said this:
2. "Monks, this is the one-way path
25
for the purification of beings,
for the surmounting of sorrow and lamentation, for the passing away
of pain and dejection, for the attainment of the true way, for the real-
ization of Nibbana—namely, the four establishments of mindfulness.
3. "What are the four? Here, monks, a monk dwells contemplating
the body in the body, ardent, clearly comprehending, and mindful, hav-
ing subdued longing and dejection in regard to the world.
26
He dwells
contemplating feelings in feelings, ardent, clearly comprehending, and
mindful, having subdued longing and dejection in regard to the world.
He dwells contemplating mind in mind, ardent, clearly comprehend-
ing, and mindful, having subdued longing and dejection in regard to
the world. He dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena, ardent,
282 In the Buddha's Words
clearly comprehending, and mindful, having subdued longing and
dejection in regard to the world.
27
[contemplation of the body]
[1. Mindfulness of Breathing]
4. "And how, monks, does a monk dwell contemplating the body in the
body? Here a monk, gone to the forest, to the foot of a tree, or to an
empty hut, sits down; having folded his legs crosswise, straightened his
body, and established mindfulness in front of him, just mindful he
breathes in, mindful he breathes out. Breathing in long, he understands:
'I breathe in long'; or breathing out long, he understands: 'I breathe out
long.' Breathing in short, he understands: 'I breathe in short'; or breath-
ing out short, he understands: 'I breathe out short.'
28
He trains thus: T
will breathe in experiencing the whole body'; he trains thus: 'I will
breathe out experiencing the whole body.'
29
He trains thus: 'I will breathe
in tranquilizing the bodily formation'; he trains thus: 'I will breathe out
tranquilizing the bodily formation.'
30
Just as a skilled lathe-worker or his
apprentice, when making a long turn, understands: 'I make a long turn';
or, when making a short turn, understands: 'I make a short turn'; so too,
breathing in long, a monk understands: 'I breathe in long' ... he trains
thus: 'I will breathe out tranquilizing the bodily formation.'
5. "In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body inter-
nally, or he dwells contemplating the body in the body externally, or
he dwells contemplating the body in the body both internally and
externally.
31
Or else he dwells contemplating in the body its nature of
arising, or he dwells contemplating in the body its nature of vanish-
ing, or he dwells contemplating in the body its nature of both arising
and vanishing.
32
Or else mindfulness that 'there is a body' is simply
established in him to the extent necessary for bare knowledge and
repeated mindfulness. And he dwells independent, not clinging to
anything in the world. That is how a monk dwells contemplating the
body in the body.
[2. The Four Postures]
6. "Again, monks, when walking, a monk understands: T am walking';
when standing, he understands: 'I am standing'; when sitting, he under-
stands: T am sitting'; when lying down, he understands: T am lying
down'; or he understands accordingly however his body is disposed.
33
'Sieving trie ivurut
7. "In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body inter-
nally, externally, and both internally and externally.... And he dwells
independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That too is how a
monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.
[3. Clear Comprehension]
8. "Again, monks, a monk is one who acts with clear comprehension
when going forward and returning;
34
who acts with clear comprehen-
sion when looking ahead and looking away; who acts with clear com-
prehension when bending and stretching his limbs; who acts with clear
comprehension when wearing his robes and carrying his outer robe
and bowl; who acts with clear comprehension when eating, drinking,
chewing, and tasting; who acts with clear comprehension when defecat-
ing and urinating; who acts with clear comprehension when walking,
standing, sitting, falling asleep, waking up, talking, and keeping silent.
9. "In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body inter-
nally, externally, and both internally and externally.... And he dwells
independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That too is how a
monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.
[4. Unattractiveness of the Body]
10. "Again, monks, a monk reviews this same body up from the soles
of the feet and down from the top of the hair, bounded by skin, as full
of many kinds of impurity thus: Tn this body there are head-hairs,
body-hairs, nails, teeth, skin, flesh, sinews, bones, bone-marrow, kid-
neys, heart, liver, diaphragm, spleen, lungs, intestines, mesentery,
stomach, feces, bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, fat, tears, grease, spit-
tle, snot, oil of the joints, and urine.'
35
Just as though there were a bag
with an opening at both ends full of many sorts of grain, such as hill
rice, red rice, beans, peas, millet, and white rice, and a man with good
eyes were to open it and review it thus: 'This is hill rice, this is red rice,
these are beans, these are peas, this is millet, this is white rice'; so too,
a monk reviews this same body ... as full of many kinds of impurity
thus: Tn this body there are head-hairs ... and urine.'
11. "In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body
internally, externally, and both internally and externally.... And he
dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That too is
how a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.
284 In the Buddha's Words
[5. Elements]
12. "Again, monks, a monk reviews this same body, however it is
placed, however disposed, as consisting of elements thus: 'In this
body there are the earth element, the water element, the fire element,
and the air element.'
36
Just as though a skilled butcher or his appren-
tice had killed a cow and were seated at the crossroads with it cut up
into pieces; so too, a monk reviews this same body ... as consisting of
elements thus: 'In this body there are the earth element, the water ele-
ment, the fire element, and the air element.'
13. "In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body inter-
nally, externally, and both internally and externally.... And he dwells
independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That too is how a
monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.
[6-14. The Nine Charnel Ground Contemplations]
14. "Again, monks, as though he were to see a corpse thrown aside in
a charnel ground, one, two, or three days dead, bloated, livid, and ooz-
ing matter, a monk compares this same body with it thus: 'This body
too is of the same nature, it will be like that, it is not exempt from that
fate.'
37
15. "In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body inter-
nally, externally, and both internally and externally.... And he dwells
independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That too is how a
monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.
16. "Again, as though he were to see a corpse thrown aside in a char-
nel ground, being devoured by crows, hawks, vultures, dogs, jackals,
or various kinds of worms, a monk compares this same body with it
thus: 'This body too is of the same nature, it will be like that, it is not
exempt from that fate.'
17. "...That too is how a monk dwells contemplating the body in
the body.
18-24. "Again, as though he were to see a corpse thrown aside in a
charnel ground, a skeleton with flesh and blood, held together with
sinews ... a fleshless skeleton smeared with blood, held together with
sinews ... a skeleton without flesh and blood, held together with sinews
... disconnected bones scattered in all directions—here a hand-bone,
there a foot-bone, here a shin-bone, there a thigh-bone, here a hip-bone,
there a back-bone, here the skull—a monk compares this same body
Mastering the Mind 285
with it thus: 'This body too is of the same nature, it will be like that, it
is not exempt from that fate.'
38
25. "...That too is how a monk dwells contemplating the body in
the body.
26-30. "Again, as though he were to see a corpse thrown aside in a
charnel ground, bones bleached white, the color of shells ... bones
heaped up ... bones more than a year old, rotted and crumbled to dust,
a monk compares this same body with it thus: 'This body too is of the
same nature, it will be like that, it is not exempt from that fate.'
31. "In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body inter-
nally, or he dwells contemplating the body in the body externally, or he
dwells contemplating the body in the body both internally and exter-
nally. Or else he dwells contemplating in the body its nature of arising,
or he dwells contemplating in the body its nature of vanishing, or he
dwells contemplating in the body its nature of both arising and vanish-
ing. Or else mindfulness that 'there is a body' is simply established in
him to the extent necessary for bare knowledge and repeated mindful-
ness. And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world.
That too is how a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.
[contemplation of feeling]
32. "And how, monks, does a monk dwell contemplating feelings in
feelings?
39
Here, when feeling a pleasant feeling, a monk understands:
T feel a pleasant feeling'; when feeling a painful feeling, he under-
stands: T feel a painful feeling'; when feeling a neither-painful-nor-
pleasant feeling, he understands: T feel a neither-painful-nor-pleasant
feeling.' When feeling a carnal pleasant feeling, he understands: T feel
a carnal pleasant feeling'; when feeling a spiritual pleasant feeling, he
understands: T feel a spiritual pleasant feeling'; when feeling a carnal
painful feeling, he understands: T feel a carnal painful feeling'; when
feeling a spiritual painful feeling, he understands: T feel a spiritual
painful feeling'; when feeling a carnal neither-painful-nor-pleasant
feeling, he understands: T feel a carnal neither-painful-nor-pleasant
feeling'; when feeling a spiritual neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling,
he understands: T feel a spiritual neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling.'
33. "In this way he dwells contemplating feelings in feelings inter-
nally, or he dwells contemplating feelings in feelings externally, or
he dwells contemplating feelings in feelings both internally and
286 In the Buddha's Words
externally. Or else he dwells contemplating in feelings their nature of
arising, or he dwells contemplating in feelings their nature of vanish-
ing, or he dwells contemplating in feelings their nature of both aris-
ing and vanishing.
40
Or else mindfulness that 'there is feeling' is
simply established in him to the extent necessary for bare knowledge
and repeated mindfulness. And he dwells independent, not clinging
to anything in the world. That is how a monk dwells contemplating
feelings in feelings.
[contemplation of mind]
34. "And how, monks, does a monk dwell contemplating mind in
mind?
41
Here a monk understands a mind with lust as a mind with
lust, and a mind without lust as a mind without lust. He understands
a mind with hatred as a mind with hatred, and a mind without hatred
as a mind without hatred. He understands a mind with delusion as a
mind with delusion, and a mind without delusion as a mind without
delusion. He understands a contracted mind as contracted, and a dis-
tracted mind as distracted. He understands an exalted mind as exalted,
and an unexalted mind as unexalted. He understands a surpassable
mind as surpassable, and an unsurpassable mind as unsurpassable.
He understands a concentrated mind as concentrated, and an uncon-
centrated mind as unconcentrated. He understands a liberated mind as
liberated, and an unliberated mind as unliberated.
42
35. "In this way he dwells contemplating mind in mind internally, or
he dwells contemplating mind in mind externally, or he dwells con-
templating mind in mind both internally and externally. Or else he
dwells contemplating in mind its nature of arising, or he dwells con-
templating in mind its nature of vanishing, or he dwells contemplating
in mind its nature of both arising and vanishing.
43
Or else mindfulness
that 'there is mind' is simply established in him to the extent neces-
sary for bare knowledge and repeated mindfulness. And he dwells
independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how a
monk dwells contemplating mind as mind.
[contemplation of phenomena]
[1. The Five Hindrances]
36. "And how, monks, does a monk dwell contemplating phenomena
in phenomena? Here a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in
Mastering the Mind 287
phenomena in terms of the five hindrances.
44
And how does a monk
dwell contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the five
hindrances? Here, when there is sensual desire in him, a monk under-
stands: There is sensual desire in me'; or when there is no sensual
desire in him, he understands: There is no sensual desire in me'; and
he also understands how unarisen sensual desire arises, and how
arisen sensual desire is abandoned, and how abandoned sensual desire
does not arise again in the future.'
45
"When there is ill will in him ... When there is dullness and drowsi-
ness in him ... When there is restlessness and remorse in him ... When
there is doubt in him, a monk understands: There is doubt in me'; or
when there is no doubt in him, he understands: There is no doubt in
me'; and he also understands how the unarisen doubt arises, and how
arisen doubt is abandoned, and how abandoned doubt does not arise
again in the future.
37. "In this way he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena
internally, or he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena
externally, or he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena both
internally and externally. Or else he dwells contemplating in phenom-
ena their nature of arising, or he dwells contemplating in phenomena
their nature of vanishing, or he dwells contemplating in phenomena
their nature of both arising and vanishing. Or else mindfulness that
'there are phenomena' is simply established in him to the extent nec-
essary for bare knowledge and repeated mindfulness. And he dwells
independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how a
monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the
five hindrances.
[2. The Five Aggregates]
38. "Again, monks, a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phe-
nomena in terms of the five aggregates subject to clinging.
46
And how
does a monk dwell contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms
of the five aggregates affected by clinging? Here a monk understands:
'Such is form, such its origin, such its passing away; such is feeling,
such its origin, such its passing away; such is perception, such its ori-
gin, such its passing away; such are the volitional formations, such
their origin, such their passing away; such is consciousness, such its
origin, such its passing away.'
47
288 In the Buddha's Words
39. "In this way he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena
internally, externally, and both internally and externally.... And he
dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how
a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of
the five aggregates subject to clinging.
[3. The Six Sense Bases]
40. "Again, monks, a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phe-
nomena in terms of the six internal and external sense bases.
48
And
how does a monk dwell contemplating phenomena in phenomena in
terms of the six internal and external sense bases? Here a monk under-
stands the eye, he understands forms, and he understands the fetter
that arises dependent on both; and he also understands how the
unarisen fetter arises, and how the arisen fetter is abandoned, and how
the abandoned fetter does not arise again in the future.
49
"He understands the ear, he understands sounds.... He understands
the nose, he understands odors.... He understands the tongue, he
understands flavors.... He understands the body, he understands tac-
tile objects.... He understands the mind, he understands phenomena,
and he understands the fetter that arises dependent on both; and he
also understands how the unarisen fetter arises, and how the arisen
fetter is abandoned, and how the abandoned fetter does not arise again
in the future.
41. "In this way he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena
internally, externally, and both internally and externally.... And he
dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how
a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of
the six internal and external sense bases.
[4. The Seven Enlightenment Factors]
42. "Again, monks, a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phe-
nomena in terms of the seven enlightenment factors.
50
And how does
a monk dwell contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of
the seven enlightenment factors? Here, when there is the mindfulness
enlightenment factor in him, a monk understands: 'There is the mind-
fulness enlightenment factor in me'; or when there is no mindfulness
enlightenment factor in him, he understands: 'There is no mindfulness
enlightenment factor in me'; and he also understands how the unarisen
Mastering the Mina z»y
mindfulness enlightenment factor arises, and how the arisen mindful-
ness enlightenment factor comes to fulfillment by development.
"When there is the discrimination of phenomena enlightenment fac-
tor in him... When there is the energy enlightenment factor in him ...
When there is the rapture enlightenment factor in him ... When there is
the tranquillity enlightenment factor in him ... When there is the concen-
tration enlightenment factor in him ... When there is the equanimity
enlightenment factor in him, a monk understands: 'There is the equa-
nimity enlightenment factor in me'; or when there is no equanimity
enlightenment factor in him, he understands: 'There is no equanimity
enlightenment factor in me'; and he also understands how the unarisen
equanimity enlightenment factor arises, and how the arisen equanimity
enlightenment factor comes to fulfillment by development.
51
43. "In this way he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena
internally, externally, and both internally and externally.... And he
dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how
a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of
the seven enlightenment factors.
[5. The Four Noble Truths]
44. "Again, monks, a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phe-
nomena in terms of the Four Noble Truths.
52
And how does a monk
dwell contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the Four
Noble Truths? Here a monk understands as it really is: 'This is suffer-
ing. This is the origin of suffering. This is the cessation of suffering.
This is the way leading to the cessation of suffering.'
45. "In this way he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena
internally, or he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena
externally, or he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena both
internally and externally. Or else he dwells contemplating in phenom-
ena their nature of arising, or he dwells contemplating in phenomena
their nature of vanishing, or he dwells contemplating in phenomena
their nature of both arising and vanishing. Or else mindfulness that
'there are phenomena' is simply established in him to the extent nec-
essary for bare knowledge and repeated mindfulness. And he dwells
independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how a
monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the
Four Noble Truths.
290 In the Buddha's Words
[conclusion]
46. "Monks, if anyone should develop these four establishments of
mindfulness in such a way for seven years, one of two fruits could be
expected for him: either final knowledge here and now, or if there is a
trace of clinging left, nonreturning.
53
"Let alone seven years, monks. If anyone should develop these four
establishments of mindfulness in such a way for six years ... for five
years ... for four years ... for three years ... for two years ... for one
year, one of two fruits could be expected for him: either final knowl-
edge here and now, or if there is a trace of clinging left, nonreturning.
"Let alone one year, monks. If anyone should develop these four
establishments of mindfulness in such a way for seven months ... for
six months ... for five months ... for four months ... for three months
... for two months ... for one month ... for half a month, one of two
fruits could be expected for him: either final knowledge here and now,
or if there is a trace of clinging left, nonreturning.
"Let alone half a month, monks. If anyone should develop these four
establishments of mindfulness in such a way for seven days, one of
two fruits could be expected for him: either final knowledge here and
now, or if there is a trace of clinging left, nonreturning.
47. "So it was with reference to this that it was said: 'Monks, this is
the direct path for the purification of beings, for the surmounting of
sorrow and lamentation, for the passing away of pain and dejection, for
the attainment of the true way, for the realization of Nibbana—namely,
the four establishments of mindfulness.'"
That is what the Blessed One said. The monks were satisfied and
delighted in the Blessed One's words.
(MN 10: Satipatthana Sutta; 155-63)
9. MINDFULNESS OF BREATHING
At Savatthi, the Venerable Ananda approached the Blessed One, paid
homage to him, sat down to one side, and said: "Venerable sir, is there
one thing which, when developed and cultivated, fulfills four things?
And four things which, when developed and cultivated, fulfill seven
things? And seven things which, when developed and cultivated, ful-
fill two things?"
Mastering xne ivnnu ^?i
"There is, Ananda, one thing which, when developed and cultivated,
fulfills four things; and four things which, when developed and culti-
vated, fulfill seven things; and seven things which, when developed
and cultivated, fulfill two things."
"But, venerable sir, what is the one thing which, when developed
and cultivated, fulfills four things; and the four things which, when
developed and cultivated, fulfill seven things; and the seven things
which, when developed and cultivated, fulfill two things?"
"Concentration by mindfulness of breathing, Ananda, is the one
thing which, when developed and cultivated, fulfills the four estab-
lishments of mindfulness. The four establishments of mindfulness,
when developed and cultivated, fulfill the seven factors of enlighten-
ment. The seven factors of enlightenment, when developed and culti-
vated, fulfill true knowledge and liberation.
[i. Fulfilling the four establishments of mindfulness]
"How, Ananda, is concentration by mindfulness of breathing devel-
oped and cultivated so that it fulfills the four establishments of mind-
fulness? Here, Ananda, a monk, having gone to the forest, to the foot
of a tree, or to an empty hut, sits down.
54
Having folded his legs cross-
wise, straightened his body, and set up mindfulness in front of him,
just mindful he breathes in, mindful he breathes out. "Breathing in
long, he knows: T breathe in long'; or breathing out long, he knows: T
breathe out long.' Breathing in short, he knows: T breathe in short'; or
breathing out short, he knows: T breathe out short.' He trains thus:
'Experiencing the whole body, I will breathe in'; he trains thus: 'Experi-
encing the whole body, I will breathe out.' He trains thus:
'Tranquilizing the bodily formation, I will breathe in'; he trains thus:
'Tranquilizing the bodily formation, I will breathe out.'
"He trains thus: 'Experiencing rapture, I will breathe in'; he trains
thus: 'Experiencing rapture, I will breathe out.' He trains thus: 'Expe-
riencing happiness, I will breathe in'; he trains thus: 'Experiencing hap-
piness, I will breathe out.' He trains thus: 'Experiencing the mental
formation, I will breathe in'; he trains thus: 'Experiencing the mental
formation, I will breathe out.' He trains thus: 'Tranquilizing the men-
tal formation, I will breathe in'; he trains thus: 'Tranquilizing the men-
tal formation, I will breathe out.'
55
292 In the Buddha's Words
"He trains thus: 'Experiencing the mind, I will breathe in'; he trains
thus: 'Experiencing the mind, I will breathe out.' He trains thus: 'Glad-
dening the mind, I will breathe in'; he trains thus: 'Gladdening the
mind, I will breathe out.' He trains thus: 'Concentrating the mind, I
will breathe in'; he trains thus: 'Concentrating the mind, I will breathe
out.' He trains thus: 'Liberating the mind, I will breathe in'; he trains
thus: 'Liberating the mind, I will breathe out.'
56
"He trains thus: 'Contemplating impermanence, I will breathe in'; he
trains thus: 'Contemplating impermanence, I will breathe out.' He
trains thus: 'Contemplating fading away, I will breathe in'; he trains
thus: 'Contemplating fading away, I will breathe out.' He trains thus:
'Contemplating cessation, I will breathe in'; he trains thus: 'Contem-
plating cessation, I will breathe out.' He trains thus: 'Contemplating
relinquishment, I will breathe in'; he trains thus: 'Contemplating relin-
quishment, I will breathe out.'
57
"Whenever, Ananda, a monk, when breathing in long, knows: 'I
breathe in long'... [as above] ... when he trains thus: 'Tranquilizing the
bodily formation, I will breathe out'—on that occasion the monk
dwells contemplating the body in the body, ardent, clearly compre-
hending, mindful, having subdued longing and dejection in regard to
the world. For what reason? I call this a certain kind of body, Ananda,
that is, breathing in and breathing out. Therefore, Ananda, on that
occasion the monk dwells contemplating the body in the body, ardent,
clearly comprehending, mindful, having subdued longing and dejec-
tion in regard to the world.
"Whenever, Ananda, a monk trains thus: 'Experiencing rapture, I
will breathe in' ... when he trains thus: 'Tranquilizing the mental for-
mation, I will breathe out'—on that occasion the monk dwells contem-
plating feelings in feelings, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful,
having subdued longing and dejection in regard to the world. For what
reason? I call this a certain kind of feeling, Ananda, that is, close atten-
tion to breathing in and breathing out.
58
Therefore, Ananda, on that
occasion the monk dwells contemplating feelings in feelings, ardent,
clearly comprehending, mindful, having subdued longing and dejec-
tion in regard to the world.
"Whenever, Ananda, a monk trains thus: 'Experiencing the mind, I
will breathe in' ... when he trains thus: 'Liberating the mind, I will
breathe out'—on that occasion the monk dwells contemplating mind
in mind, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful, having subdued
longing and dejection in regard to the world. For what reason? I say,
Ananda, that there is no development of concentration by mindful-
ness of breathing for one who is muddled and who lacks clear compre-
hension. Therefore, Ananda, on that occasion the monk dwells
contemplating mind in mind, ardent, clearly comprehending, mind-
ful, having subdued longing and dejection in regard to the world.
"Whenever, Ananda, a monk trains thus: 'Contemplating imperma-
nence, I will breathe in' ... when he trains thus: 'Contemplating relin-
quishment, I will breathe out'—on that occasion the monk dwells
contemplating phenomena in phenomena, ardent, clearly compre-
hending, mindful, having subdued longing and dejection in regard to
the world. Having seen with wisdom what is the abandoning of long-
ing and dejection, he is one who looks on closely with equanimity.
59
Therefore, Ananda, on that occasion the monk dwells contemplating
phenomena in phenomena, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful,
having subdued longing and dejection in regard to the world.
"It is, Ananda, when concentration by mindfulness of breathing is
developed and cultivated in this way that it fulfills the four establish-
ments of mindfulness.
[ii. Fulfilling the seven factors of enlightenment]
"And how, Ananda, are the four establishments of mindfulness
developed and cultivated so that they fulfill the seven factors of
enlightenment?
"Whenever, Ananda, a monk dwells contemplating the body in the
body, on that occasion unmuddled mindfulness is established in that
monk. Whenever, Ananda, unmuddled mindfulness has been estab-
lished in a monk, on that occasion the enlightenment factor of mind-
fulness is aroused by the monk; on that occasion the monk develops
the enlightenment factor of mindfulness; on that occasion the enlight-
enment factor of mindfulness goes to fulfillment by development in
the monk.
60
"Dwelling thus mindfully, he discriminates that phenomenon with
wisdom, examines it, makes an investigation of it. Whenever, Ananda,
a monk dwelling thus mindfully discriminates that phenomenon with
wisdom, examines it, makes an investigation of it, on that occasion the
enlightenment factor of discrimination of phenomena
61
is aroused by
294 In the Buddha's Words
the monk; on that occasion the monk develops the enlightenment fac-
tor of discrimination of phenomena; on that occasion the enlighten-
ment factor of discrimination of phenomena goes to fulfillment by
development in the monk.
"While he discriminates that phenomenon with wisdom, examines
it, makes an investigation of it, his energy is aroused without slacken-
ing. Whenever, Ananda, a monk's energy is aroused without slacken-
ing as he discriminates that phenomenon with wisdom, examines it,
makes an investigation of it, on that occasion the enlightenment factor
of energy is aroused by the monk; on that occasion the monk develops
the enlightenment factor of energy; on that occasion the enlightenment
factor of energy goes to fulfillment by development in the monk.
"When his energy is aroused, there arises in him spiritual rapture.
Whenever, Ananda, spiritual rapture arises in a monk whose energy is
aroused, on that occasion the enlightenment factor of rapture is
aroused by the monk; on that occasion the monk develops the enlight-
enment factor of rapture; on that occasion the enlightenment factor of
rapture goes to fulfillment by development in the monk.
"For one whose mind is uplifted by rapture the body becomes tran-
quil and the mind becomes tranquil. Whenever, Ananda, the body
becomes tranquil and the mind becomes tranquil in a monk whose
mind is uplifted by rapture, on that occasion the enlightenment factor
of tranquillity is aroused by the monk; on that occasion the monk
develops the enlightenment factor of tranquillity; on that occasion the
enlightenment factor of tranquillity goes to fulfillment by development
in the monk.
"For one whose body is tranquil and who is happy the mind
becomes concentrated. Whenever, Ananda, the mind becomes concen-
trated in a monk whose body is tranquil and who is happy, on that
occasion the enlightenment factor of concentration is aroused by the
monk; on that occasion the monk develops the enlightenment factor of
concentration; on that occasion the enlightenment factor of concentra-
tion goes to fulfillment by development in the monk.
"He becomes one who closely looks on with equanimity at the mind
thus concentrated. Whenever, Ananda, a monk becomes one who
closely looks on with equanimity at the mind thus concentrated, on
that occasion the enlightenment factor of equanimity is aroused by the
monk; on that occasion the monk develops the enlightenment factor of
Mastering the Mina zys
equanimity; on that occasion the enlightenment factor of equanimity
goes to fulfillment by development in the monk.
"Whenever, Ananda, a monk dwells contemplating feelings in feel-
ings ... mind in mind ... phenomena in phenomena, on that occasion
unmuddled mindfulness is established in that monk. Whenever,
Ananda, unmuddled mindfulness has been established in a monk, on
that occasion the enlightenment factor of mindfulness is aroused by
the monk; on that occasion the monk develops the enlightenment fac-
tor of mindfulness; on that occasion the enlightenment factor of mind-
fulness goes to fulfillment by development in the monk.
[All should be elaborated as in the case of the first establishment of
mindfulness.]
"He becomes one who closely looks on with equanimity at the mind
thus concentrated. Whenever, Ananda, a monk becomes one who
closely looks on with equanimity at the mind thus concentrated, on
that occasion the enlightenment factor of equanimity is aroused by the
monk; on that occasion the monk develops the enlightenment factor of
equanimity; on that occasion the enlightenment factor of equanimity
goes to fulfillment by development in the monk.
"It is, Ananda, when the four establishments of mindfulness are
developed and cultivated in this way that they fulfill the seven factors
of enlightenment.
[iii. Fulfilling true knowledge and liberation]
"How, Ananda, are the seven factors of enlightenment developed and
cultivated so that they fulfill true knowledge and liberation?
"Here, Ananda, a monk develops the enlightenment factor of mind-
fulness, which is based upon seclusion, dispassion, and cessation,
maturing in release. He develops the enlightenment factor of discrim-
ination of phenomena ... the enlightenment factor of energy ... the
enlightenment factor of rapture ... the enlightenment factor of tran-
quillity ... the enlightenment factor of concentration ... the enlighten-
ment factor of equanimity, which is based upon seclusion, dispassion,
and cessation, maturing in release.
"It is, Ananda, when the seven factors of enlightenment are devel-
oped and cultivated in this way that they fulfill true knowledge and
liberation."
(SN 54:13; V 328-33 # MN 118.15-43; III 82-88)
296 In the Buddha's Words
10. THE ACHIEVEMENT OF MASTERY
On one occasion the Venerable Sariputta was dwelling at Savatthi in
Jeta's Grove, Anathapindika's Park.
62
Then one morning he dressed
and, taking bowl and robe, entered Savatthi for alms. When he had
walked for alms in Savatthi and had returned from the almsround,
after his meal he went to the Blind Men's Grove for the day's abiding.
Having plunged into the Blind Men's Grove, he sat down at the foot of
a tree for the day's abiding.
Then, in the evening, the Venerable Sariputta emerged from seclu-
sion and went to Jeta's Grove, Anathapindika's Park. The Venerable
Ananda saw him coming in the distance and said to him: "Friend
Sariputta, your faculties are serene, your facial complexion is pure and
bright. In what dwelling have you spent the day?"
"Here, friend, secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from
unwholesome states, I entered and dwelled in the first jhana, which is
accompanied by thought and examination, with rapture and happi-
ness born of seclusion. Yet, friend, it did not occur to me, 'I am attain-
ing the first jhana,' or 'I have attained the first jhana,' or 'I have
emerged from the first jhana.'"
"It must be because I-making, mine-making, and the underlying ten-
dency to conceit have been thoroughly uprooted in your mind for a
long time that such thoughts did not occur to you."
63
[On another occasion the Venerable Sariputta said:] "Here, friend,
with the subsiding of thought and examination, I entered and dwelled
in the second jhana, which has internal confidence and unification of
mind, is without thought and examination, and has rapture and hap-
piness born of concentration. Yet, friend, it did not occur to me, 'I am
attaining the second jhana,' or 'I have attained the second jhana,' or 'I
have emerged from the second jhana.'"
"It must be because I-making, mine-making, and the underlying ten-
dency to conceit have been thoroughly uprooted in your mind for a
long time that such thoughts did not occur to you."
[On another occasion the Venerable Sariputta said:] "Here, friend,
with the fading away as well of rapture, I dwelled equanimous and,
mindful and clearly comprehending, I experienced happiness with the
body; I entered and dwelled in the third jhana, of which the noble ones
Mastering tne Mina z^/
declare: 'He is equanimous, mindful, one who dwells happily.' Yet,
friend, it did not occur to me, 'I am attaining the third jhana....'" [Com-
plete as above.}
[On another occasion the Venerable Sariputta said:] "Here, friend,
with the abandoning of pleasure and pain, and with the previous pass-
ing away of joy and displeasure, I entered and dwelled in the fourth
jhana, which is neither painful nor pleasant and includes the purifica-
tion of mindfulness by equanimity. Yet, friend, it did not occur to me,
'I am attaining the fourth jhana....'"
[On another occasion the Venerable Sariputta said:] "Here, friend,
with the complete transcending of perceptions of forms, with the pass-
ing away of perceptions of sensory impingement, with nonattention to
perceptions of diversity, aware that 'space is infinite,' I entered and
dwelled in the base of the infinity of space. Yet, friend, it did not occur
to me, 'I am attaining the base of the infinity of space....'"
[On another occasion the Venerable Sariputta said:] "Here, friend,
by completely transcending the base of the infinity of space, aware that
'consciousness is infinite,' I entered and dwelled in the base of the
infinity of consciousness. Yet, friend, it did not occur to me, T am
attaining the base of the infinity of consciousness....'"
[On another occasion the Venerable Sariputta said:] "Here, friend,
by completely transcending the base of the infinity of consciousness,
aware that 'there is nothing,' I entered and dwelled in the base of noth-
ingness. Yet, friend, it did not occur to me, 'I am attaining the base of
nothingness....'"
[On another occasion the Venerable Sariputta said:] "Here, friend, by
completely transcending the base of nothingness, I entered and dwelled
in the base of neither-perception-nor-nonperception. Yet, friend, it did
not occur to me, 'I am attaining the base of neither-perception-nor-non-
perception....'"
[On another occasion the Venerable Sariputta said:] "Here, friend,
by completely transcending the base of neither-perception-nor-non-
perception, I entered and dwelled in the cessation of perception and
feeling. Yet, friend, it did not occur to me, 'I am attaining the cessation
of perception and feeling,' or 'I have attained the cessation of percep-
tion and feeling,' or 'I have emerged from the cessation of perception
and feeling.'"
64
298 In the Buddha's Words
"It must be because I-making, mine-making, and the underlying ten-
dency to conceit have been thoroughly uprooted in your mind for a
long time that such thoughts did not occur to you."
(SN 28:1-9, combined; III 235-38)
INTRODUCTION
The texts cited in the last chapter treated meditation as a discipline of
mental training aimed at a twofold task: stilling the mind and gener-
ating insight. The still mind, calm and collected, is the foundation for
insight. The still mind observes phenomena as they arise and pass
away, and from sustained observation and probing exploration arises
"the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena" (adhipannadhamma-
vipassana). As wisdom gathers momentum, it penetrates more and
more deeply into the nature of things, culminating in the full and com-
prehensive understanding called enlightenment (sambodhi).
The Pali word translated here as "wisdom" is patina, the Pali equiv-
alent of Sanskrit prajna, which gives its name to the voluminous
prajnaparamita sutras of Mahayana Buddhism. The idea of panna/prajna
as the principal tool on the path to enlightenment, however, did not
originate with the prajnaparamita literature but is already deeply
embedded in the teachings of Early Buddhism. The Nikayas take panna
not only as a point of doctrine but as a rich theme for imagery. Thus,
Texts IX
/
l(D-(2) speak of panna respectively as a light and a knife. It is
the supreme light because it illuminates the true nature of things and
dispels the darkness of ignorance. It is a knife—a sharp butcher's
knife—because it cuts through the tangled mass of the defilements and
thereby opens the way to liberation.
The Pali word panna is derived from the verbal root na (Skt: jna),
meaning "to know," preceded by the prefix pa (Skt: pro), which merely
gives the root meaning a more dynamic nuance. So panna/prajna
means knowing or understanding, not as a possession, but as an action:
the act of knowing, the act of understanding, the act of discerning. In
Pali, the verb pajanati, "one understands," conveys this sense more
effectively than the correlative noun panna.
1
What is meant by panna,
however, is a type of understanding superior to that which occurs
when one understands, for instance, a difficult passage in an econom-
ics textbook or the implications of a legal argument. Panna signifies
the understanding that arises through spiritual training, illuminates
301
302 In the Buddha's Words
the real nature of things, and culminates in the mind's purification and
liberation. For this reason, despite its drawbacks, I continue to use the
familiar "wisdom."
Contemporary Buddhist literature commonly conveys two ideas
about panna that have become almost axioms in the popular under-
standing of Buddhism. The first is that panna is exclusively noncon-
ceptual and nondiscursive, a type of cognition that defies all the laws
of logical thought; the second, that panna arises spontaneously, through
an act of pure intuition as sudden and instantaneous as a brilliant flash
of lightning. These two ideas about panna are closely connected. If
panna defies all the laws of thought, it cannot be approached by any
type of conceptual activity but can arise only when the rational, dis-
criminative, conceptual activity of the mind has been stultified. And
this stopping of conceptualization, somewhat like the demolition of a
building, must be a rapid one, an undermining of thought not previ-
ously prepared for by any gradual maturation of understanding. Thus,
in the popular understanding of Buddhism, panna defies rationality
and easily slides off into "crazy wisdom," an incomprehensible, mind-
boggling way of relating to the world that dances at the thin edge
between super-rationality and madness.
Such ideas about panna receive no support at all from the teachings
of the Nikayas, which are consistently sane, lucid, and sober. To take
the two points in reverse order: First, far from arising spontaneously,
panna in the Nikayas is emphatically conditioned, arisen from an
underlying matrix of causes and conditions. And second, panna is not
bare intuition, but a careful, discriminative understanding that at cer-
tain stages involves precise conceptual operations. Panna is directed
to specific domains of understanding. These domains, known in the
Pali commentaries as "the soil of wisdom" (pannabhumi), must be thor-
oughly investigated and mastered through conceptual understanding
before direct, nonconceptual insight can effectively accomplish its
work. To master them requires analysis, discrimination, and discern-
ment. One must be able to abstract from the overwhelming mass of
facts certain basic patterns fundamental to all experience and use these
patterns as templates for close contemplation of one's own experience.
I will have more to say about this as we go along.
The conditional basis for wisdom is laid down in the three-tier struc-
ture of the Buddhist training. As we have seen, in the three divisions
Shining the Light of Wisdom 303
of the Buddhist path, moral discipline functions as the basis for concen-
tration and concentration as the basis for wisdom. Thus the immediate
condition for the arising of wisdom is concentration. As the Buddha
often says: "Develop concentration, monks. One who is concentrated
sees things as they really are."
2
To "see things as they really are" is the
work of wisdom; the immediate basis for this correct seeing is concen-
tration. Since concentration depends on proper bodily and verbal con-
duct, moral discipline too is a condition for wisdom.
Text IX,2 gives a fuller list of eight causes and conditions for obtain-
ing "the wisdom fundamental to the spiritual life" and for bringing
such wisdom to maturity. Of particular interest is the fifth condition,
which not only emphasizes the contribution that study of the Dhamma
makes to the development of wisdom but also prescribes a sequential
program of education. First one "learns much" of those "teachings that
are good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end."
Then one memorizes them; then recites them aloud; then investigates
them with the mind; and finally "penetrates them well by view." The
last step can be equated with direct insight, but such insight is pre-
pared for by the preceding steps, which provide the "information" nec-
essary for thorough penetration to occur. From this, we can see that
wisdom does not arise automatically on the basis of concentration but
depends upon a clear and precise conceptual understanding of the
Dhamma induced by study, reflection, and deep contemplation of the
teachings.
As a factor of the Noble Eightfold Path, wisdom is known as right
view (sammaditthi). Text IX,3, a slightly abridged version of the
Sammaditthi Sutta, the Discourse on Right View (MN 9), gives an
excellent overview of the "soil of wisdom." The Venerable Sariputta,
the Buddha's disciple who excelled in wisdom, spoke the discourse to
a group of his fellow monks. Since ancient times, the text has served as
a primer of Buddhist studies in the monasteries of southern Asia.
According to the classical commentary on this sutta, right view is
twofold: conceptual right view, a clear intellectual grasp of the Dhamma;
and experiential right view, the wisdom that directly penetrates the
Dhamma. Conceptual right view, called "right view in conformity with
the truths" (saccanulomika-sammaditthi), is a correct understanding of
the Dhamma arrived at by studying and examining the Buddha's
teachings in depth. Such understanding, though conceptual rather
304 In the Buddha's Words
than experiential, is by no means dry and sterile. When rooted in faith
in the Buddha's enlightenment and driven by a strong determination
to realize the truth of the Dhamma, it serves as the germ from which
experiential right view evolves and thus becomes a critical step in the
growth of wisdom.
Experiential right view is the realization of the truth of the
Dhamma—above all, of the Four Noble Truths—in one's own immedi-
ate experience. For this reason it is called "right view that penetrates
the truths" (saccapativedha-sammaditthi). To arrive at direct penetration,
one begins with correct conceptual understanding of the teaching and,
by practice, transforms this understanding into direct perception. If
conceptual right view is compared to a hand—a hand that grasps the
truth with the aid of concepts—then experiential right view might be
compared to an eye. It is the eye of wisdom, the vision of the Dhamma,
that sees directly into the ultimate truth, hidden from us for so long by
our greed, hatred, and delusion.
The Discourse on Right View is intended to elucidate the principles
that should be comprehended by conceptual right view and penetrated
by experiential right view. Sariputta expounds these principles under
sixteen headings: the wholesome and the unwholesome, the four nutri-
ments of life, the Four Noble Truths, the twelve factors of dependent
origination, and the taints. It should be noted that from the second sec-
tion to the end of the sutta, he frames all his expositions in accordance
with the same pattern, a pattern that reveals the principle of condition-
ality to be the scaffolding for the entire teaching. Whatever phenome-
non he takes up, he expounds by bringing to light its individual nature,
its arising, its cessation, and the way to its cessation. Since this is the
pattern that underlies the Four Noble Truths, I shall call it "the four-
truth pattern." This pattern recurs throughout the Nikayas as one of
the major templates through which phenomena are to be viewed to
arrive at true wisdom. Its application makes it clear that no entity is iso-
lated and self-enclosed but is, rather, inherently linked to other things
in a complex web of dependently originated processes. The key to lib-
eration lies in understanding the causes that sustain this web and
bringing them to an end within oneself. This is done by practicing the
Noble Eightfold Path, the way to extinguish those causes.
The world-transcending right view, arrived at by penetrating any of
the sixteen subjects expounded in the sutta, occurs in two main stages.
Shining the Light of Wisdom 305
The first stage is the right view of the trainee (sekha), the disciple who
has entered irreversibly upon the path to liberation but has not yet
reached its end. This stage is indicated by the words that open each sec-
tion, "(one) who has perfect confidence in the Dhamma and has
arrived at this true Dhamma." These words signify right view as a
vision of true principles, an insight that has initiated a radical transfor-
mation in the disciple but has not yet reached completion. The second
stage is the world-transcending right view of the arahant, described
by the closing words of each section. These words indicate that the dis-
ciple has used right view to eradicate the remaining defilements and
has attained complete emancipation.
In section 4 we arrive at what I call "the domain of wisdom," the
areas to be explored and penetrated by insight. Many of the texts in this
section come from the Samyutta Nikaya, whose major chapters are
devoted to the principal doctrines of Early Buddhism. I include selec-
tions here on the five aggregates; the six sense bases; the elements (in
different numerical sets); dependent origination; and the Four Noble
Truths. As we survey these selections we will notice certain recurrent
patterns.
IX,4(1) The Five Aggregates. The five aggregates (pancakkhandha) are
the main categories the Nikayas use to analyze human experience. The
five are: (1) form (rupa), the physical component of experience; (2) feel-
ing (vedana), the "affective tone" of experience—either pleasant,
painful, or neutral; (3) perception (sanna), the identification of things
through their distinctive marks and features; (4) volitional formations
(sankhara), a term for the multifarious mental factors involving voli-
tion, choice, and intention; and (5) consciousness (vinnana), cognition
arisen through any of the six sense faculties—eye, ear, nose, tongue,
body, and mind.
Examination of the five aggregates, the topic of the Khandhasam-
yutta (Samyutta Nikaya, chapter 22), is critical to the Buddha's teach-
ing for at least four reasons. First, the five aggregates are the ultimate
referent of the first noble truth, the noble truth of suffering (see the
exposition of the first truth in Text 11,5), and since all four truths
revolve around suffering, understanding the aggregates is essential for
understanding the Four Noble Truths as a whole. Second, the five
aggregates are the objective domain of clinging and as such contribute
to the causal origination of future suffering. Third, clinging to the five
306 In the Buddha's Words
aggregates must be removed to attain liberation. And fourth, the kind
of wisdom needed to remove clinging is precisely clear insight into the
true nature of the aggregates. The Buddha himself declares that so long
as he did not understand the five aggregates in terms of their individ-
ual nature, arising, cessation, and the way to their cessation, he did not
claim to have attained perfect enlightenment. The full understanding
of the five aggregates is a task he likewise enjoins on his disciples. The
five aggregates, he says, are the things that must be fully understood;
their full understanding brings the destruction of greed, hatred, and
delusion (SN 22:23).
The word khandha (Skt: skandha) means, among other things, a heap
or mass (rasi). The five aggregates are so called because they each unite
under one label a multiplicity of phenomena that share the same defin-
ing characteristic. Thus whatever form there is, "past, future, or pres-
ent, internal or external, gross or subtle, inferior or superior, far or
near," is incorporated into the form aggregate; whatever feeling there
is, "past, future, or present, internal or external, gross or subtle, inferior
or superior, far or near," is incorporated into the feeling aggregate; and
so for each of the other aggregates. Text IX,4(l)(a) enumerates in sim-
ple terms the constituents of each aggregate and shows that each
aggregate arises and ceases in correlation with its own specific condi-
tion; the Noble Eightfold Path is the way to bring each aggregate to an
end. Here we find the "four-truth pattern" applied to the five aggre-
gates, an application that follows quite logically from the role that the
five aggregates play in representing the first noble truth.
This sutta makes a distinction between trainees and arahants simi-
lar to that made by the Discourse on Right View. Trainees have directly
known the five aggregates by way of the four-truth pattern and are
practicing for their fading away and cessation; they have thereby
"gained a foothold (gadhanti) in this Dhamma and Discipline." Ara-
hants too have directly known the five aggregates by way of the four-
truth pattern, but they have gone further than the trainees. They have
extirpated all attachment to the aggregates and are liberated by non-
clinging; thus they are called "consummate ones" (kevalino) who can-
not be described by way of the round of rebirths.
A detailed catechism on the aggregates, treating them from diverse
angles, can be found in Text IX,4(l)(b). Because the five aggregates that
make up our ordinary experience are the objective domain of clinging
Shining the Light of Wisdom 307
The Five Aggregates
(based on SN 22:56-57 and 22:95)
Aggregate
Content
Condition
Simile
form
four great elements
and form derived
from them
nutriment
a lump of foam
feeling
six classes of
feeling: born of
contact through
eye, ear, nose,
tongue, body,
and mind
contact
a water bubble
perception
six classes of
perception: of
forms, sounds,
smells, tastes, tactile
objects, and mental
phenomena
contact a mirage
volitional
formations
six classes of
volition:
regarding forms,
sounds, smells,
tastes, tactile
objects, and
mental phenomena
contact
a banana-tree
trunk
consciousness
six classes of
consciousness:
eye-, ear-, nose-,
tongue-, body-,
mind-consciousness
name-and-form
a magical
illusion
(upadana), they are commonly called the five aggregates subject to
clinging (panc'upadanakkhandha). Clinging to the five aggregates
occurs in two principal modes, which we might call appropriation and
identification. One either grasps them and takes possession of them,
that is, one appropriates them; or one uses them as the basis for views
about one's self or for conceit ("I am better than, as good as, inferior
308 In the Buddha's Words
to others"), that is, one identifies with them. As the Nikayas put it, we
are prone to think of the aggregates thus: "This is mine, this I am, this
is my self" (etam mama, eso 'ham asmi, eso me atta). In this phrase, the
notion "This is mine" represents the act of appropriation, a function of
craving (tanha). The notions "This I am" and "This is my self" represent
two types of identification, the former expressing conceit (mana), the
latter views (ditthi).
3
Giving up craving is so difficult because craving is reinforced by
views, which rationalize our identification with the aggregates and
thus equip craving with a protective shield. The type of view that lies
at the bottom of all affirmation of selfhood is called identity view
(sakkayaditthi). The suttas often mention twenty types of identity view,
obtained by considering one's self to stand in any of four relations to
each of the five aggregates: either as identical with it, as possessing it,
as containing it, or as contained within it. The "uninstructed
worldling" holds some kind of identity view; "the instructed noble
disciple," having seen with wisdom the selfless nature of the aggre-
gates, no longer regards the aggregates as a self or the belongings of
a self. Adopting any of these views is a cause of anxiety and distress.
It is also a leash that keeps us bound to the round of rebirths—see
above, Text 1,2(3) and Text 1,4(5).
All the defilements ultimately stem from ignorance, which thus lies
at the bottom of all suffering and bondage. Ignorance weaves a net of
three delusions around the aggregates. These delusions are the notions
that the five aggregates are permanent, a source of true happiness, and
a self. The wisdom needed to break the spell of these delusions is the
insight into the five aggregates as impermanent (anicca), suffering
(dukkha), and nonself (anatta). This is called the direct knowledge of
the three characteristics of existence (tilakkhana).
Some suttas seem to make insight into one or another of the three
characteristics alone sufficient for reaching the goal. However, the three
characteristics are closely interwoven, and thus the most common for-
mula found in the Nikayas builds upon their internal relationship. First
enunciated in the Buddha's second discourse at Baranasi—Text
IX,4(l)(c)—the formula uses the characteristic of impermanence to
reveal the characteristic of suffering, and both together to reveal the
characteristic of nonself. The suttas take this indirect route to the char-
acteristic of nonself because the selfless nature of things is so subtle
Shining the Light of Wisdom 309
that often it cannot be seen except when pointed to by the other two
characteristics. When we recognize that the things we identify as our
self are impermanent and bound up with suffering, we realize that
they lack the essential marks of authentic selfhood and we thereby stop
identifying with them.
The different expositions of the three characteristics all thus eventually
converge on the eradication of clinging. They do so by showing, with
regard to each aggregate, "This is not mine, this I am not, this is not my
self." This makes the insight into nonself the culmination and consum-
mation of the contemplation of the three characteristics. While the char-
acteristic of nonself is usually approached through the other two
characteristics, as in Text IX,4(l)(d), it is sometimes disclosed directly.
An example of the direct approach to nonself is Text IX,4(l)(e), the dis-
course on "the lump of foam," which uses five memorable similes to
reveal the empty nature of the five aggregates. According to the standard
formula, insight into the five aggregates as impermanent, suffering, and
nonself induces disenchantment (nibbida), dispassion (viraga), and liber-
ation (vimutti). One who attains liberation subsequently wins "the
knowledge and vision of liberation," the assurance that the round of
rebirths has indeed been stopped and nothing more remains to be done.
Another pattern that the suttas often apply to the five aggregates,
and to the other groups of phenomena, is the triad of gratification, dan-
ger, and escape. Texts VI,2(l)-(3), from the Ahguttara Nikaya, apply
this triad to the world as a whole. The Samyutta Nikaya applies the
same scheme individually to the aggregates, sense bases, and elements.
The pleasure and joy each aggregate, sense base, and element offers is
its gratification; its impermanence, pervasion by suffering, and nature
to change is its danger; and the abandoning of desire and lust for it is
the escape from it.
IX,4(2) The Six Sense Bases. The Salayatanasamyutta, the Connected
Discourses on the Six Sense Bases (Samyutta Nikaya, chapter 35), con-
tains over two hundred short suttas on the sense bases. The six inter-
nal and external sense bases provide a perspective on the totality of
experience different from, but complementary to, the perspective pro-
vided by the aggregates. The six pairs of bases are the sense faculties
and their corresponding objects, which support the arising of the
respective type of consciousness. Because they mediate between con-
sciousness and its objects, the internal sense bases are spoken of as the
310 In the Buddha's Words
The Six Internal and External Sense Bases
Internal sense bases
External sense bases
Types of consciousness
arisen from the sense bases
eye
forms
eye-consciousness
ear
sounds
ear-consciousness
nose
smells
nose-consciousness
tongue
tastes
tongue-consciousness
body
tactile objects
body-consciousness
mind
mental phenomena
mind-consciousness
"bases for contact" (phassayatana), "contact" (phassa) being the coming
together of sense faculty, object, and consciousness.
What the first five sense bases and their objects signify is obvious
enough, but the sixth pair, mind (mano) and phenomena (dhamma), pres-
ents some difficulty. If we treat the two terms as parallel to the other
internal and external bases, we would understand the mind base to be
the support for the arising of mind-consciousness (manovinnana) and the
phenomena base to be the objective sphere of mind-consciousness. On
this interpretation, "mind" might be taken as the passive flow of con-
sciousness from which active conceptual consciousness emerges, and
"phenomena" as purely mental objects such as those apprehended by
introspection, imagination, and reflection. The Abhidhamma and the
Pali commentaries, however, interpret the two terms differently. They
hold that the mind base comprises all classes of consciousness, that is,
they include within it all six types of consciousness. They also hold that
all actual entities not comprised in the other sense bases constitute the
phenomena base. The phenomena base, then, includes the other three
mental aggregates—feeling, perception, and volitional formations—as
well as types of subtle material form not implicated in experience
through the physical senses. Whether this interpretation conforms to the
meaning intended in the oldest Buddhist texts is an open question.
Text IX,4(2)(a) testifies that for Early Buddhism, liberation requires
direct knowledge and full understanding of the internal and external
sense bases and all the phenomena that arise from them. This seems to
Shining the Light of Wisdom 311
establish an apparent correspondence between Buddhism and empir-
ical science, but the type of knowledge sought by the two disciplines
differs. Whereas the scientist seeks impersonal, "objective" informa-
tion, the Buddhist practitioner seeks direct insight into the nature of
these phenomena as components of lived experience.
The Nikayas suggest an interesting difference between the treatment
given to the aggregates and the sense bases. Both serve as the soil
where clinging takes root and grows, but while the aggregates are pri-
marily the soil for views about a self, the sense bases are primarily the
soil for craving. A necessary step in the conquest of craving is therefore
restraint of the senses. Monks and nuns in particular must be vigilant
in their encounters with desirable and undesirable sense objects. When
one is negligent, experience through the senses invariably becomes a
trigger for craving: lust for pleasant objects, aversion toward disagree-
able objects (and a craving for pleasant escape routes), and a dull
attachment to neutral objects.
In one of his earliest discourses popularly known as "The Fire Ser-
mon"—Text IX,4(2)(b)—the Buddha declared that "all is burning." The
"all" is just the six senses, their objects, the types of consciousness
arisen from them, and the related contacts and feelings. The way to
liberation is to see that this "all" is burning with the fires of defile-
ments and suffering. The Salayatanasamyutta repeatedly states that to
dispel ignorance and generate true knowledge, we must contemplate
all the sense bases and the feelings that arise through them as imper-
manent, suffering, and nonself. This, according to Text IX,4(2)(c), is the
direct way to the attainment of Nibbana. An alternative route, com-
mended by Text IX,4(2)(d), is to see that the six senses are empty
empty of a self or of anything belonging to a self. Since consciousness
arises via the six sense bases, it too is devoid of self—Text IX, 4(2)(e).
IX,4(3) The Elements. The elements are the subject of the Dhatu-
samyutta (Samyutta Nikaya, chapter 14). The word "elements" (dhatu)
is applied to several quite disparate groups of phenomena, and thus
the suttas in this chapter fall into separate clusters with little in com-
mon but their concern with entities called elements. The most impor-
tant groups consist of eighteen, four, and six elements.
The eighteen elements are an elaboration of the twelve sense bases.
They consist of the six sense faculties, the six sense objects, and the six
types of sense consciousness. Since six types of consciousness have
312 In the Buddha's Words
been extracted from the mind base, the mind element that remains
must be a simpler type of cognitive event. The Nikayas do not specify
its precise function. The Abhidhamma identifies it with a type of con-
sciousness that fulfills more rudimentary roles in the process of cogni-
tion than the more discriminative mind-consciousness element.
IX,4(3)(a) contains a simple enumeration of the eighteen elements.
Contemplation of these elements helps to dispel the notion that an
abiding subject underlies the changing contents of experience. It shows
how experience consists of different types of consciousness, each of
which is conditioned, arisen in dependence on its own specific sense
faculty and object. Thus to ascertain the composite, diversified, condi-
tioned nature of experience dispels the illusion of unity and solidity
that ordinarily obscures correct cognition.
The four elements are earth, water, heat, and air. These represent four
"behavioral modes" of matter: solidity, fluidity, energy, and distension.
The four are inseparably united in any unit of matter, from the small-
est to the largest and most complex. The elements are not merely prop-
erties of the external world, however, but also of one's own body. Thus
one must contemplate them in relation to one's body, as the Sati-
patthana Sutta teaches (see Text VIII, 8 §12). The three suttas combined
in Text IX,4(3)(b) show that these elements can be viewed: as imperma-
nent and conditioned; from the triple standpoint of gratification, dan-
ger, and escape; and by way of the four-truth pattern.
The six elements include the four physical elements, the space ele-
ment, and the element of consciousness. Text IX,4(3)(c), a long excerpt
from MN 140, explains in detail how to contemplate the six elements
in relation to the physical body, the external world, and conscious
experience.
IX,4(4) Dependent Origination. Dependent origination (paticca-
samuppada) is so central to the Buddha's teaching that the Buddha said:
"One who sees dependent origination sees the Dhamma, and one who
sees the Dhamma sees dependent origination" (MN 28; 1190-91). The
ulitmate purpose of the teaching on dependent origination is to reveal
the conditions that sustain the round of rebirths and thereby to show
what must be done to gain release from the round. To win deliverance
is a matter of unraveling the causal pattern that underlies our bondage,
and this process begins with understanding the causal pattern itself. It
is dependent origination that defines this causal pattern.
Shining the Light of Wisdom 313
An entire chapter of the Samyutta Nikaya, the Nidanasamyutta
(chapter 12), is devoted to dependent origination. The doctrine is usu-
ally expounded as a sequence of twelve factors joined into a chain of
eleven propositions; see Text IX,4(4)(a). A Buddha discovers this chain
of conditions; after his enlightenment, his mission is to explain it to
the world. Text IX,4(4)(b) declares the sequence of conditions to be a
fixed principle, a stable law, the nature of things. The series is
expounded in two ways: by way of origination (called anuloma or for-
ward order), and by way of cessation (called patiloma or reverse order).
Sometimes the presentation proceeds from the first factor to the last;
sometimes it begins at the end and traces the chain of conditions back
to the first. Other suttas pick up the chain somewhere in the middle
and work either backward to the end or forward to the front.
The Nikayas themselves do not give any systematic explanation of
dependent origination in the way one might expect a college text-
book to do. Thus, for a clear explanation, we must rely on the com-
mentaries and expository treatises that have come down from the
Early Buddhist schools. Despite minor differences in details, these
concur on the general meaning of this ancient formula, which might
be briefly summarized as follows: Because of (1) ignorance (avijja),
lack of direct knowledge of the Four Noble Truths, we engage in
wholesome and unwholesome activities of body, speech, and mind;
these are (2) volitional formations (sankhara), in other words, kamma.
Volitional formations sustain consciousness from one life to the next
and determine where it re-arises; in this way volitional formations
condition (3) consciousness (vinnana). Along with consciousness,
beginning from the moment of conception, comes (4) "name-and-
form" (namarupa), the sentient organism with its physical form (rupa)
and its sensitive and cognitive capacities (nama). The sentient organ-
ism is equipped with (5) six sense bases (salayatana), the five physi-
cal sense faculties and the mind as organ of cognition. The sense
bases allow (6) contact (phassa) to occur between consciousness and
its objects, and contact conditions (7) feeling (vedana). Called into play
by feeling, (8) craving (tanha) arises, and when craving intensifies it
gives rise to (9) clinging (upadana), tight attachment to the objects of
desire through sensuality and wrong views. Impelled by our attach-
ments, we again engage in volitional actions pregnant with (10) a
new existence (bhava). At death this potential for new existence is
314 In the Buddha's Words
actualized in a new life beginning with (11) birth (jati) and ending in
(12) aging-and-death (jaramarana).*
From the above, we can see that the commentarial interpretation
treats the twelve factors as spread out over a span of three lives, with
ignorance and volitional formations pertaining to the past, birth and
aging-and-death to the future, and the intermediate factors to the pres-
ent. The segment from consciousness through feeling is the resultant
phase of the present, the phase resulting from past ignorance and
kamma; the segment from craving through existence is the karmically
creative phase of the present, leading to renewed existence in the
future. But existence is distinguished into two phases: one, called
kamma-existence (kammabhava), constitutes the active side of existence
and belongs to the causal phase of the present life; the other, called
rebirth-existence (upapattibhava), constitutes the passive side of exis-
tence and belongs to the resultant phase of the future life. The twelve
factors are also distributed into three "rounds": the round of defile-
ments (kilesavatta) includes ignorance, craving, and clinging; the
round of action (kammavatta) includes volitional formations and
kamma-existence; and all the other factors belong to the round of
results (vipakavatta). Defilements give rise to defiled actions, actions
bring forth results, and results serve as the soil for more defilements. In
this way the round of rebirths revolves without discernible beginning.
This method of dividing up the factors should not be misconstrued
to mean that the past, present, and future factors are mutually exclu-
sive. The distribution into three lives is only an expository device
which, for the sake of concision, has to resort to some degree of abstrac-
tion. As many suttas in the Nidanasamyutta show, groups of factors
separated in the formula are inevitably interwoven in their dynamic
operation. Whenever there is ignorance, craving and clinging invari-
ably accompany it; and whenever there is craving and clinging, igno-
rance stands behind them. The formula demonstrates how rebirth can
take place without the presence of a substantial self that maintains its
identity as it transmigrates from one life to the next. Without a self to
hold the sequence together, what connects one life to the next is noth-
ing other than the principle of conditionality. Conditions in one exis-
tence initiate the arising of the conditioned phenomena in the next
existence; these serve as conditions for still other phenomena, which
condition still other phenomena, and so on indefinitely into the future.
Shining the Light of Wisdom 315
The whole process ends only when its underlying springs—ignorance,
craving, and clinging—are extirpated by wisdom.
Dependent origination is not a mere theory but a teaching that
should be directly known by personal experience, a point clearly made
by Text IX,4(4)(c). This sutta instructs the disciple to understand each
factor by way of the four-truth pattern: one should understand the fac-
tor itself, its origin, its cessation, and the way to its cessation. First one
understands this pattern in relation to one's personal experience. Then,
on this basis, one infers that all those who correctly understood these
things in the past understood them in exactly the same way; then that
all those who will correctly understand these things in the future will
understand them in exactly the same way. In this way, dependent orig-
ination acquires a timeless and universal significance.
Several suttas hold up dependent origination as a "teaching by the
middle" {majjhena tathagato dhammam deseti). It is a "teaching by the
middle" because it transcends two extreme views that polarize philo-
sophical reflection on the human condition. One extreme, the meta-
physical thesis of eternalism {sassatavada), asserts that the core of
human identity is an indestructible and eternal self, whether individ-
ual or universal. It also asserts that the world is created and maintained
by a permanent entity, a God or some other metaphysical reality. The
other extreme, annihilationism (ucchedavada), holds that at death the
person is utterly annihilated. There is no spiritual dimension to human
existence and thus no personal survival of any sort. For the Buddha,
both extremes pose insuperable problems. Eternalism encourages an
obstinate clinging to the five aggregates, which are really imperma-
nent and devoid of a substantial self; annihilationism threatens to
undermine ethics and to make suffering the product of chance.
Dependent origination offers a radically different perspective that
transcends the two extremes. It shows that individual existence is con-
stituted by a current of conditioned phenomena devoid of a metaphys-
ical self yet continuing on from birth to birth as long as the causes that
sustain it remain effective. Dependent origination thereby offers a
cogent explanation of the problem of suffering that on the one hand
avoids the philosophical dilemmas posed by the hypothesis of a per-
manent self, and on the other avoids the dangers of ethical anarchy to
which annihilationism eventually leads. As long as ignorance and crav-
ing remain, the process of rebirth continues; kamma yields its pleasant
316 In the Buddha's Words
and painful fruit, and the great mass of suffering accumulates. When
ignorance and craving are destroyed, the inner mechanism of karmic
causation is deactivated, and one reaches the end of suffering in
samsara. Perhaps the most elegant exposition of dependent origina-
tion as the "middle teaching" is the famous Kaccanagotta Sutta,
included here as Text IX,4(4)(d).
Though the twelve-factor formula is the most familiar version of the
doctrine of dependent origination, the Nidanasamyutta introduces a
number of little-known variants that help to illuminate the standard
version. One such variant, Text IX,4(4)(e), speaks about the conditions
for "the continuance of consciousness" (vinnanassa thitiya), in other
words, how consciousness passes on to a new existence. The causes
are said to be the underlying tendencies, namely, ignorance and crav-
ing, and "what one intends and plans," namely, the volitional forma-
tions. Once consciousness becomes established, the production of a
new existence begins; thus we here proceed directly from conscious-
ness (the usual third factor) to existence (the usual tenth factor). Text
IX,4(4)(f) says that from the six internal and external sense bases (the
former being the usual fifth factor), consciousness (the third factor)
arises, followed by contact, feeling, craving, and all the rest. These vari-
ants make it plain that the sequence of factors should not be regarded
as a linear causal process in which each preceding factor gives rise to
its successor through the simple exercise of efficient causality. Far from
being linear, the relationship among the factors is always complex,
involving several interwoven strands of conditionally
IX,4(5) The Four Noble Truths. As we have seen in both the "gradual
path to liberation" and in the "contemplation of phenomena" section
of the Discourse on the Establishment of Mindfulness, the path to lib-
eration culminates in the realization of the Four Noble Truths: see Text
VII,4 §25 and Text VIII,8 §44. These were the truths that the Buddha
discovered on the night of his enlightenment and enunciated in his
first discourse: see Text 11,3(2) §42 and Text 11,5. The First Discourse is
tucked away almost inconspicuously in the Saccasamyutta (Samyutta
Nikaya, chapter 56), the Connected Discourses on the Truths, a chap-
ter replete with many other pithy and thought-provoking suttas.
To highlight the wide-ranging significance of the Four Noble Truths,
the Saccasamyutta casts them against a universal background. Accord-
ing to Text IX,4(5)(a), not only the Buddha Gotama, but all the Buddhas
Shining the Light of Wisdom 317
past, present, and future awaken to these same four truths. These four
truths, says Text IX,4(5)(b), are truths because they are "actual, unerr-
ing, not otherwise." According to Text IX,4(5)(c), the things the Buddha
teaches are as few as a handful of leaves in the forest, and what he
teaches are just these Four Noble Truths, taught precisely because they
lead to enlightenment and Nibbana.
Sentient beings roam and wander in samsara because they have not
understood and penetrated the Four Noble Truths—Text IX,4(5)(d). As
the chain of dependent origination shows, what lies at the base of the
causal genesis of suffering is ignorance (avijja), and ignorance is
unawareness of the Four Noble Truths. Thus those who fail to under-
stand the four truths generate volitional formations and fall down the
precipice of birth, aging, and death—Text IX,4(5)(e).
The antidote to ignorance is knowledge {vijja), which accordingly is
defined as knowledge of the Four Noble Truths. The first penetration
of the Four Noble Truths occurs with the attainment of stream-entry,
called the breakthrough to the Dhamma (dhatnmabhisamaya). To make
this breakthrough is by no means easy, but without doing so it is
impossible to put an end to suffering—Text IX,4(5)(f). Hence the
Buddha again and again urges his disciples to "make an extraordinary
effort" to achieve the breakthrough to the truths.
Once the disciple makes the breakthrough and sees the Four Noble
Truths, more work still lies ahead, for each truth imposes a task that
must be fulfilled in order to win the final fruit. The truth of suffering,
which ultimately consists of the five aggregates, must be fully under-
stood (parinneyya). The truth of its origin, craving, must be abandoned
(pahatabba). The truth of cessation, Nibbana, must be realized
(sacchikatabba). And the truth of the way, the Noble Eightfold Path,
must be developed (bhavetabba). Developing the path brings to comple-
tion all four tasks, at which point one reaches the destruction of the
taints. This process begins with penetration of the same Four Noble
Truths, and thus Text IX,4(5)(g) says that the destruction of the taints
is for those who know and see the Four Noble Truths.
IX,5 The Goal of Wisdom. The Four Noble Truths not only serve as the
objective domain of wisdom but also define its purpose, which is
enshrined in the third noble truth, the cessation of suffering. The cessa-
tion of suffering is Nibbana, and thus the goal of wisdom, the end
toward which the cultivation of wisdom moves, is the attainment of
318 In the Buddha's Words
Nibbana. But what exactly is meant by Nibbana? The suttas explain Nib-
bana in a number of ways. Some, such as Text IX,5(D, define Nibbana
simply as the destruction of lust, hatred, and delusion. Others, such as
the series comprised in Text IX,5(2), employ metaphors and images to
convey a more concrete idea of the ultimate goal. Nibbana is still the
destruction of lust, hatred, and delusion, but as such it is, among other
things, peaceful, deathless, sublime, wonderful, and amazing. Such
descriptions indicate that Nibbana is a state of supreme happiness,
peace, and freedom to be experienced in this present life.
A few suttas, most notably a pair in the Udana—included here as
Texts IX,5(3) and IX,5(4)—suggest that Nibbana is not simply the
destruction of defilements and an exalted feeling of psychological well-
being. They speak of Nibbana almost as if it were a transcendent state
or dimension of being. Text IX,5(3) refers to Nibbana as a "base"
{ayatana) beyond the world of common experience where none of the
physical elements or even the subtle formless dimensions of experi-
ence are present; it is a state completely quiescent, without arising, per-
ishing, or change. Text IX,5(4) calls it the state that is "unborn, unmade,
unbecome, [and] unconditioned" {ajatam, akatarn, abhutam, asankhatarn),
the existence of which makes possible deliverance from all that is born,
made, come-to-be, and conditioned.
How are we to correlate these two perspectives on Nibbana found
in the Nikayas, one treating it as an experiential state of inward purity
and sublime bliss, the other as an unconditioned state transcending
the empirical world? Commentators, both Buddhists and outsiders,
have tried to connect these two aspects of Nibbana in different ways.
Their interpretations generally reflect the proclivity of the interpreter
as much as they do the texts themselves. The way that seems most
faithful to both aspects of Nibbana delineated in the texts is to regard
the attainment of Nibbana as a state of freedom and happiness
attained by realizing, with profound wisdom, the unconditioned and
transcendent element, the state that is intrinsically tranquil and for-
ever beyond suffering. The penetration of this element brings the
destruction of defilements, culminating in complete purification of
mind. Such purification is accompanied by the experience of perfect
peace and happiness in this present life. With the breakup of the body
at physical death, it brings irreversible release from the beginningless
round of rebirths.
Shining the Light of Wisdom 319
The suttas speak of two "elements of Nibbana," the Nibbana ele-
ment with residue remaining {sa-upadisesa-nibbanadhatu) and the
Nibbana element without residue remaining {anupadisesa-nibbana-
dhatu). Text IX,5(5) explains the Nibbana element with residue remain-
ing to be the destruction of lust, hatred, and delusion attained by an
arahant while still alive. The "residue" that remains is the composite of
the five aggregates that was brought into being by the ignorance and
craving of the past life and that must continue on until the end of the
lifespan. As to the Nibbana element without residue remaining, the
same text says only that when the arahant passes away, all that is felt,
not being delighted in, will become cool right here. Since there is no
more clinging to the five aggregates, and no more craving for fresh
experience through a new set of aggregates, the occurrence of the
aggregates comes to an end and cannot continue. The process of the
five aggregates is "extinguished" (the literal meaning of Nibbana).
5
The Buddha says nothing at all, however, in terms either of existence
or nonexistence, about the condition of the arahant after death. It might
seem logical to suppose that since the five aggregates that constitute
experience completely cease with the attainment of the Nibbana ele-
ment without residue, this element must itself be a state of complete
nonexistence, a state of nothingness. Yet no text in the Nikayas ever
states this. To the contrary, the Nikayas consistently refer to Nibbana
by terms that refer to actualities. It is an element {dhatu), a base
{ayatana), a reality {dhamma), a state {pada), and so on. However, though
so designated, it is qualified in ways that indicate this state ultimately
lies beyond all familiar categories and concepts.
In Text IX,5(6), the wanderer Vacchagotta asks the Buddha whether
the Tathagata—here signifying one who has attained the supreme
goal—is reborn {upapajjati) or not after death. The Buddha refuses to
concede any of the four alternatives. To say that the Tathagata is reborn,
is not reborn, both is and is not reborn, neither is nor is not reborn
none of these is acceptable, for all accept the term Tathagata as indicative
of a real being, while from an internal point of view a Tathagata has
given up all clinging to notions of a real being. The Buddha illustrates
this point with the simile of an extinguished fire. Just as a fire that has
been extinguished cannot be said to have gone anywhere but must sim-
ply be said to have "gone out," so with the breakup of the body the
Tathagata does not go anywhere but has simply "gone out." The past
320 In the Buddha's Words
participle nibbnta, used to describe a fire that has been extinguished, is
related to the noun nibbana, which literally means "extinguishing."
6
Yet, if this simile suggests a Buddhist version of the "annihilationist"
view of the arahant's fate after his demise, this impression would rest
on a misunderstanding, on a wrong perception of the arahant as a
"self" or "person" that is annihilated. Our problem in understanding
the state of the Tathagata after death is compounded by our difficulty
in understanding the state of the Tathagata even while alive. The sim-
ile of the great ocean underscores this difficulty. Since the Tathagata
no longer identifies with the five aggregates that constitute individual
identity, he cannot be reckoned in terms of them, whether individually
or collectively. Freed from reckoning in terms of the five aggregates, the
Tathagata transcends our understanding. Like the great ocean, he is
"deep, immeasurable, [and] hard to fathom."
7
IX. SHINING THE LIGHT OF WISDOM
I. IMAGES OF WISDOM
(1) Wisdom as a Light
"There are, O monks, these four lights. What four? The light of the
moon, the light of the sun, the light of fire, and the light of wisdom. Of
these four lights, the light of wisdom is supreme."
(AN 4:143; II139)
(2) Wisdom as a Knife
II. "Sisters, suppose a skilled butcher or his apprentice were to kill a
cow and carve it up with a sharp butcher's knife. Without damaging
the inner mass of flesh and without damaging the outer hide, he would
cut, sever, and carve away the inner tendons, sinews, and ligaments
with the sharp butcher's knife. Then having cut, severed, and carved
all this away, he would remove the outer hide and cover the cow again
with that same hide. Would he be speaking rightly if he were to say:
'This cow is joined to this hide just as it was before'?"
"No, venerable sir. Why is that? Because if that skilled butcher or
his apprentice were to kill a cow ... and cut, sever, and carve all that
away, even though he covers the cow again with that same hide and
says: 'This cow is joined to this hide just as it was before,' that cow
would still be disjoined from that hide."
12. "Sisters, I have given this simile in order to convey a meaning.
This is the meaning: 'The inner mass of flesh' is a term for the six inter-
nal bases. 'The outer hide' is a term for the six external bases. 'The
inner tendons, sinews, and ligaments' is a term for delight and lust.
'The sharp butcher's knife' is a term for noble wisdom—the noble wis-
dom that cuts, severs, and carves away the inner defilements, fetters,
and bonds."
(from MN 146: Nandakovada Sutta; III 274-75)
321
322 In the Buddha's Words
2. THE CONDITIONS FOR WISDOM
"There are, O monks, these eight causes and conditions for obtaining
the wisdom fundamental to the spiritual life when it has not been
obtained and for bringing about the increase, maturation, and fulfill-
ment by development of the wisdom that has already been obtained.
What eight?
(1) "Here, a monk lives in dependence on the Teacher or on a certain
fellow monk in the position of a teacher, and he has set up toward him
a keen sense of shame and moral dread and regards him with affection
and respect. This is the first cause and condition for obtaining the wis-
dom fundamental to the spiritual life....
(2) "As he is living in dependence on such teachers, he approaches
them from time to time and inquires: 'How is this, venerable sir? What
is the meaning of this?' Those venerable ones then disclose to him what
has not been disclosed, clear up what is obscure, and dispel his per-
plexity about many perplexing points. This is the second cause and
condition for obtaining the wisdom fundamental to the spiritual life....
(3) "Having learned the Dhamma, he dwells withdrawn by way of
two kinds of withdrawal: withdrawal of body and withdrawal of
mind. This is the third cause and condition for obtaining the wisdom
fundamental to the spiritual life....
(4) "He is virtuous, restrained by the restraint of the Patimokkha,
8
perfect in conduct and resort, seeing danger in the slightest faults. Hav-
ing undertaken the training rules, he trains himself in them. This is the
fourth cause and condition for obtaining the wisdom fundamental to
the spiritual life....
(5) "He has learned much, remembers what he has learned, and con-
solidates what he has learned. Such teachings that are good in the
beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end, with the right
meaning and phrasing, and which affirm a spiritual life that is per-
fectly complete and pure—such teachings as these he has learned
much of, memorized, recited verbally, investigated with the mind, and
penetrated well by view. This is the fifth cause and condition for
obtaining the wisdom fundamental to the spiritual life....
(6) "He is energetic; he lives with energy set upon the abandoning of
everything unwholesome and the acquiring of everything wholesome;
he is steadfast and strong in his effort, not shirking his task in regard
Shining the Light of Wisdom 323
to wholesome qualities. This is the sixth cause and condition for obtain-
ing the wisdom fundamental to the spiritual life....
(7) "When he is in the midst of the Sahgha, he does not engage in
rambling and pointless talk. Either he himself speaks on the Dhamma
or he requests others to do so, or he does not shun noble silence. This
is the seventh cause and condition for obtaining the wisdom funda-
mental to the spiritual life....
(8) "He dwells contemplating rise and fall in the five aggregates sub-
ject to clinging thus: 'Such is form, such its arising, such its passing
away; such is feeling ... such is perception ... such are volitional forma-
tions ... such is consciousness, such its arising, such its passing away.'
This is the eighth cause and condition for obtaining the wisdom fun-
damental to the spiritual life....
"For these eight reasons his fellow monks esteem him as one who
truly knows and sees, and these qualities lead to affection, esteem, con-
cord, and unity.
"These, monks, are the eight causes and conditions for obtaining the
wisdom fundamental to the spiritual life when it has not been obtained
and for bringing about the increase, maturation, and fulfillment by
development of the wisdom that has already been obtained."
(AN 8:2, abridged; IV 151-55)
3. A DISCOURSE ON RIGHT VIEW
1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living at
Savatthi in Jeta's Grove, Anathapindika's Park. There the Venerable
Sariputta addressed the monks thus: "Friends, monks."—"Friend,"
they replied. The Venerable Sariputta said this:
2. "'One of right view, one of right view,' is said, friends. In what
way is a noble disciple one of right view, whose view is straight, who
has confirmed confidence in the Dhamma and has arrived at this true
Dhamma?"
9
"Indeed, friend, we would come from far away to learn from the
Venerable Sariputta the meaning of this statement. It would be good if
the Venerable Sariputta would explain the meaning of this statement.
Having heard it from him, the monks will remember it."
"Then, friends, listen and attend closely to what I shall say."
324 In the Buddha's Words
"Yes, friend," the monks replied. The Venerable Sariputta said this:
[the wholesome and the unwholesome]
3. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands the unwholesome and
the root of the unwholesome, the wholesome and the root of the whole-
some, in that way he is one of right view, whose view is straight, who
has confirmed confidence in the Dhamma and has arrived at this true
Dhamma.
4. "And what, friends, is the unwholesome, what is the root of the
unwholesome, what is the wholesome, what is the root of the whole-
some? The destruction of life is unwholesome; taking what is not given
is unwholesome; sexual misconduct is unwholesome; false speech is
unwholesome; malicious speech is unwholesome; harsh speech is
unwholesome; idle chatter is unwholesome; covetousness is unwhole-
some; ill will is unwholesome; wrong view is unwholesome. This is
called the unwholesome.
10
5. "And what is the root of the unwholesome? Greed is a root of the
unwholesome; hatred is a root of the unwholesome; delusion is a root
of the unwholesome. This is called the root of the unwholesome.
6. "And what is the wholesome? Abstention from destruction of life
is wholesome; abstention from taking what is not given is wholesome;
abstention from sexual misconduct is wholesome; abstention from
false speech is wholesome; abstention from malicious speech is whole-
some; abstention from harsh speech is wholesome; abstention from
idle chatter is wholesome; uncovetousness is wholesome; non-ill will
is wholesome; right view is wholesome. This is called the wholesome.
7. "And what is the root of the wholesome? Nongreed is a root of the
wholesome; nonhatred is a root of the wholesome; nondelusion is a
root of the wholesome. This is called the root of the wholesome.
8. "When a noble disciple has thus understood the unwholesome
and the root of the unwholesome, the wholesome and the root of the
wholesome,
11
he entirely abandons the underlying tendency to lust, he
abolishes the underlying tendency to aversion, he extirpates the under-
lying tendency to the view and conceit T am/ and by abandoning igno-
rance and arousing true knowledge he here and now makes an end of
suffering.
12
In that way too a noble disciple is one of right view, whose
view is straight, who has confirmed confidence in the Dhamma and
has arrived at this true Dhamma."
Shining the Light of Wisdom 325
[nutriment]
9. Saying, "Good, friend," the monks delighted and rejoiced in the Ven-
erable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: "But,
friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is one of
right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?"—"There might
be, friends.
10. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands nutriment, the ori-
gin of nutriment, the cessation of nutriment, and the way leading to the
cessation of nutriment, in that way he is one of right view ... and has
arrived at this true Dhamma.
11. "And what is nutriment, what is the origin of nutriment, what is
the cessation of nutriment, what is the way leading to the cessation of
nutriment? There are four kinds of nutriment for the sustenance of
beings that already have come to be and for the support of those about
to come to be. What four? They are: physical food as nutriment, gross
or subtle; contact as the second; mental volition as the third; and con-
sciousness as the fourth.
13
With the arising of craving there is the aris-
ing of nutriment. With the cessation of craving there is the cessation of
nutriment. The way leading to the cessation of nutriment is just this
Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view, right intention, right speech,
right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right
concentration.
12. "When a noble disciple has thus understood nutriment, the ori-
gin of nutriment, the cessation of nutriment, and the way leading to the
cessation of nutriment, he entirely abandons the underlying tendency
to lust... he here and now makes an end of suffering. In that way too
a noble disciple is one of right view, whose view is straight, who has
confirmed confidence in the Dhamma and has arrived at this true
Dhamma."
[the Four Noble Truths]
13. Saying, "Good, friend," the monks delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?"—"There
might be, friends.
14. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands suffering, the ori-
gin of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the way leading to the
326 In the Buddha's Words
cessation of suffering, in that way he is one of right view ... and has
arrived at this true Dhamma.
15. "And what is suffering, what is the origin of suffering, what is the
cessation of suffering, what is the way leading to the cessation of suf-
fering? Birth is suffering; aging is suffering; illness is suffering; death
is suffering; sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair are suf-
fering; not to get what one wants is suffering; in brief, the five aggre-
gates subject to clinging are suffering. This is called suffering.
16. "And what is the origin of suffering? It is this craving that leads
to renewed existence, accompanied by delight and lust, seeking delight
here and there; that is, craving for sensual pleasures, craving for exis-
tence, craving for extermination. This is called the origin of suffering.
17. "And what is the cessation of suffering? It is the remainderless
fading away and cessation of that same craving, the giving up and
relinquishing of it, freedom from it, nonattachment.
18. "And what is the way leading to the cessation of suffering? It is
just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right concentration.
This is called the way leading to the cessation of suffering.
19. "When a noble disciple has thus understood suffering, the origin
of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the way leading to the ces-
sation of suffering ... he here and now makes an end of suffering. In
that way too a noble disciple is one of right view ... and has arrived at
this true Dhamma."
[aging and death]
20. Saying, "Good, friend," the monks delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?"—"There
might be, friends.
21. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands aging and death,
the origin of aging and death, the cessation of aging and death, and the
way leading to the cessation of aging and death, in that way he is one
of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
14
22. "And what is aging and death, what is the origin of aging and
death, what is the cessation of aging and death, what is the way lead-
ing to the cessation of aging and death? The aging of beings in the var-
ious orders of beings, their old age, brokenness of teeth, grayness of
Shining the Light of Wisdom 327
hair, wrinkling of skin, decline of life, weakness of faculties—this is
called aging. The passing of beings out of the various orders of beings,
their passing away, breakup, disappearance, dying, completion of time,
the breakup of the aggregates, laying down of the body—this is called
death. So this aging and this death are what is called aging and death.
With the arising of birth there is the arising of aging and death. With
the cessation of birth there is the cessation of aging and death. The way
leading to the cessation of aging and death is just this Noble Eightfold
Path; that is, right view ... right concentration.
23. "When a noble disciple has thus understood aging and death,
the origin of aging and death, the cessation of aging and death, and the
way leading to the cessation of aging and death ... he here and now
makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one of
right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
[birth]
24. Saying, "Good, friend," the monks delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?"—"There
might be, friends.
25. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands birth, the origin of
birth, the cessation of birth, and the way leading to the cessation of
birth, in that way he is one of right view ... and has arrived at this true
Dhamma.
26. "And what is birth, what is the origin of birth, what is the cessa-
tion of birth, what is the way leading to the cessation of birth? The birth
of beings in the various orders of beings, their coming to birth, precipi-
tation [in a womb], generation, manifestation of the aggregates, obtain-
ing the bases for contact—this is called birth. With the arising of
existence there is the arising of birth. With the cessation of existence there
is the cessation of birth. The way leading to the cessation of birth is just
this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right concentration.
27. "When a noble disciple has thus understood birth, the origin of
birth, the cessation of birth, and the way leading to the cessation of
birth ... he here and now makes an end of suffering. In that way too a
noble disciple is one of right view ... and has arrived at this true
Dhamma."
328 In the Buddha's Words
[existence]
28. Saying, "Good, friend," the monks delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?"—"There
might be, friends.
29. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands existence, the ori-
gin of existence, the cessation of existence, and the way leading to the
cessation of existence, in that way he is one of right view ... and has
arrived at this true Dhamma.
30. "And what is existence, what is the origin of existence, what is
the cessation of existence, what is the way leading to the cessation of
existence? There are these three kinds of existence: sense-sphere exis-
tence, form-sphere existence, and formless-sphere existence.
15
With the
arising of clinging there is the arising of existence. With the cessation
of clinging there is the cessation of existence. The way leading to the
cessation of existence is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right
view ... right concentration.
31. "When a noble disciple has thus understood existence, the origin
of existence, the cessation of existence, and the way leading to the ces-
sation of existence ... he here and now makes an end of suffering. In
that way too a noble disciple is one of right view ... and has arrived at
this true Dhamma."
[clinging]
32. Saying, "Good, friend," the monks delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?"—"There
might be, friends.
33. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands clinging, the origin
of clinging, the cessation of clinging, and the way leading to the cessa-
tion of clinging, in that way he is one of right view ... and has arrived
at this true Dhamma.
34. "And what is clinging, what is the origin of clinging, what is the
cessation of clinging, what is the way leading to the cessation of cling-
ing? There are these four kinds of clinging: clinging to sensual pleas-
ures, clinging to views, clinging to rules and observances, and clinging
Shining the Light of Wisdom 329
to a doctrine of self.
16
With the arising of craving there is the arising of
clinging. With the cessation of craving there is the cessation of clinging.
The way leading to the cessation of clinging is just this Noble Eightfold
Path; that is, right view ... right concentration.
35. "When a noble disciple has thus understood clinging, the origin
of clinging, the cessation of clinging, and the way leading to the cessa-
tion of clinging ... he here and now makes an end of suffering. In that
way too a noble disciple is one of right view ... and has arrived at this
true Dhamma."
[craving]
36. Saying, "Good, friend," the monks delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?"—"There
might be, friends.
37. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands craving, the origin
of craving, the cessation of craving, and the way leading to the cessa-
tion of craving, in that way he is one of right view ... and has arrived
at this true Dhamma.
38. "And what is craving, what is the origin of craving, what is the
cessation of craving, what is the way leading to the cessation of crav-
ing? There are these six classes of craving: craving for forms, craving
for sounds, craving for odors, craving for flavors, craving for tactile
objects, craving for mental phenomena.
17
With the arising of feeling
there is the arising of craving. With the cessation of feeling there is the
cessation of craving. The way leading to the cessation of craving is just
this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right concentration.
39. "When a noble disciple has thus understood craving, the origin
of craving, the cessation of craving, and the way leading to the cessa-
tion of craving ... he here and now makes an end of suffering. In that
way too a noble disciple is one of right view ... and has arrived at this
true Dhamma."
[feeling]
40. Saying, "Good, friend," the monks delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
330 In the Buddha's Words
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?"—"There
might be, friends.
41. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands feeling, the origin
of feeling, the cessation of feeling, and the way leading to the cessation
of feeling, in that way he is one of right view ... and has arrived at this
true Dhamma.
42. "And what is feeling, what is the origin of feeling, what is the ces-
sation of feeling, what is the way leading to the cessation of feeling?
There are these six classes of feeling: feeling born of eye-contact, feeling
born of ear-contact, feeling born of nose-contact, feeling born of tongue-
contact, feeling born of body-contact, feeling born of mind-contact. With
the arising of contact there is the arising of feeling. With the cessation
of contact there is the cessation of feeling. The way leading to the ces-
sation of feeling is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ...
right concentration.
43. "When a noble disciple has thus understood feeling, the origin of
feeling, the cessation of feeling, and the way leading to the cessation of
feeling ... he here and now makes an end of suffering. In that way too
a noble disciple is one of right view ... and has arrived at this true
Dhamma."
[contact]
44. Saying, "Good, friend," the monks delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?"—"There
might be, friends.
45. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands contact, the origin
of contact, the cessation of contact, and the way leading to the cessation
of contact, in that way he is one of right view ... and has arrived at this
true Dhamma.
46. "And what is contact, what is the origin of contact, what is the
cessation of contact, what is the way leading to the cessation of contact?
There are these six classes of contact: eye-contact, ear-contact, nose-
contact, tongue-contact, body-contact, mind-contact.
18
With the arising
of the six sense bases there is the arising of contact. With the cessation
of the six sense bases there is the cessation of contact. The way leading
to the cessation of contact is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right
view ... right concentration.
Shining the Light of Wisdom 331
47. "When a noble disciple has thus understood contact, the origin
of contact, the cessation of contact, and the way leading to the cessation
of contact ... he here and now makes an end of suffering. In that way
too a noble disciple is one of right view ... and has arrived at this true
Dhamma."
[the six sense bases]
48. Saying, "Good, friend," the monks delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?"—"There
might be, friends.
49. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands the six sense bases,
the origin of the six sense bases, the cessation of the six sense bases, and
the way leading to the cessation of the six sense bases, in that way he
is one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
50. "And what are the six sense bases, what is the origin of the six
sense bases, what is the cessation of the six sense bases, what is the
way leading to the cessation of the six sense bases? There are these six
sense bases: the eye-base, the ear-base, the nose-base, the tongue-base,
the body-base, the mind-base. With the arising of name-and-form there
is the arising of the six sense bases. With the cessation of name-and-
form there is the cessation of the six sense bases. The way leading to the
cessation of the six sense bases is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is,
right view ... right concentration.
51. "When a noble disciple has thus understood the six sense bases,
the origin of the six sense bases, the cessation of the six sense bases, and
the way leading to the cessation of the six sense bases ... he here and
now makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one
of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
[name-and-form]
52. Saying, "Good, friend," the monks delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?"—"There
might be, friends.
53. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands name-and-form,
the origin of name-and-form, the cessation of name-and-form, and the
332 In the Buddha's Words
way leading to the cessation of name-and-form, in that way he is one
of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
54. "And what is name-and-form, what is the origin of name-and-
form, what is the cessation of name-and-form, what is the way leading
to the cessation of name-and-form? Feeling, perception, volition, con-
tact, and attention—these are called name. The four great elements and
the form derived from the four great elements—these are called form.
So this name and this form are what is called name-and-form.
19
With
the arising of consciousness there is the arising of name-and-form.
With the cessation of consciousness there is the cessation of name-and-
form. The way leading to the cessation of name-and-form is just this
Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right concentration.
55. "When a noble disciple has thus understood name-and-form, the
origin of name-and-form, the cessation of name-and-form, and the way
leading to the cessation of name-and-form ... he here and now makes
an end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one of right view
... and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
[consciousness]
56. Saying, "Good, friend," the monks delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?"—"There
might be, friends.
57. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands consciousness, the
origin of consciousness, the cessation of consciousness, and the way
leading to the cessation of consciousness, in that way he is one of right
view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
58. "And what is consciousness, what is the origin of consciousness,
what is the cessation of consciousness, what is the way leading to the
cessation of consciousness? There are these six classes of conscious-
ness: eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness,
tongue-consciousness, body-consciousness, mind-consciousness.
20
With the arising of volitional formations there is the arising of con-
sciousness. With the cessation of volitional formations there is the ces-
sation of consciousness. The way leading to the cessation of
consciousness is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ...
right concentration.
Shining the Light of
59. "When a noble disciple has thus understood consciousness, the
origin of consciousness, the cessation of consciousness, and the way
leading to the cessation of consciousness ... he here and now makes an
end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one of right view
... and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
[volitional formations]
60. Saying, "Good, friend," the monks delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?"—"There
might be, friends.
61. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands volitional forma-
tions, the origin of volitional formations, the cessation of volitional for-
mations, and the way leading to the cessation of volitional formations,
in that way he is one of right view ... and has arrived at this true
Dhamma.
62. "And what are volitional formations, what is the origin of voli-
tional formations, what is the cessation of volitional formations, what
is the way leading to the cessation of volitional formations? There are
these three kinds of volitional formations: the bodily volitional forma-
tion, the verbal volitional formation, the mental volitional formation.
21
With the arising of ignorance there is the arising of volitional forma-
tions. With the cessation of ignorance there is the cessation of volitional
formations. The way leading to the cessation of volitional formations is
just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right concentration.
63. "When a noble disciple has thus understood volitional forma-
tions, the origin of volitional formations, the cessation of volitional for-
mations, and the way leading to the cessation of volitional formations
... he here and now makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble
disciple is one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
[ignorance]
64. Saying, "Good, friend," the monks delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view ... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?"—"There
might be, friends.
334 In the Buddha's Words
65. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands ignorance, the ori-
gin of ignorance, the cessation of ignorance, and the way leading to
the cessation of ignorance, in that way he is one of right view ... and
has arrived at this true Dhamma.
66. "And what is ignorance, what is the origin of ignorance, what is
the cessation of ignorance, what is the way leading to the cessation of
ignorance? Not knowing about suffering, not knowing about the ori-
gin of suffering, not knowing about the cessation of suffering, not
knowing about the way leading to the cessation of suffering—this is
called ignorance. With the arising of the taints there is the arising of
ignorance. With the cessation of the taints there is the cessation of igno-
rance. The way leading to the cessation of ignorance is just this Noble
Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right concentration.
67. "When a noble disciple has thus understood ignorance, the ori-
gin of ignorance, the cessation of ignorance, and the way leading to
the cessation of ignorance ... he here and now makes an end of suffer-
ing. In that way too a noble disciple is one of right view ... and has
arrived at this true Dhamma."
[taints]
68. Saying, "Good, friend," the monks delighted and rejoiced in the
Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question:
"But, friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is
one of right view, whose view is straight, who has confirmed confi-
dence in the Dhamma, and has arrived at this true Dhamma?"—"There
might be, friends.
69. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands the taints, the ori-
gin of the taints, the cessation of the taints, and the way leading to the
cessation of the taints, in that way he is one of right view, whose view
is straight, who has confirmed confidence in the Dhamma, and has
arrived at this true Dhamma.
70. "And what are the taints, what is the origin of the taints, what is
the cessation of the taints, what is the way leading to the cessation of
the taints? There are these three taints: the taint of sensual desire, the
taint of existence, and the taint of ignorance. With the arising of igno-
rance there is the arising of the taints.
22
With the cessation of ignorance
there is the cessation of the taints. The way leading to the cessation of
the taints is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view, right
Shining the Light of Wisdom 335
intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right
mindfulness, and right concentration.
71. "When a noble disciple has thus understood the taints, the origin
of the taints, the cessation of the taints, and the way leading to the ces-
sation of the taints, he entirely abandons the underlying tendency to
lust, he abolishes the underlying tendency to aversion, he extirpates
the underlying tendency to the view and conceit T am/ and by aban-
doning ignorance and arousing true knowledge he here and now
makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one of
right view, whose view is straight, who has perfect confidence in the
Dhamma, and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
That is what the Venerable Sariputta said. The monks were satisfied
and delighted in the Venerable Sariputta's words.
(MN 9: Sammaditthi Sutta; 146-55)
4. THE DOMAIN OF WISDOM
(1) By Way of the Five Aggregates
(a) Phases of the Aggregates
At Savatthi, the Blessed One said: "Monks, there are these five aggre-
gates subject to clinging. What five? The form aggregate subject to
clinging, the feeling aggregate subject to clinging, the perception aggre-
gate subject to clinging, the volitional formations aggregate subject to
clinging, the consciousness aggregate subject to clinging.
"So long as I did not directly know as they really are the five aggre-
gates subject to clinging in four phases,
23
I did not claim to have
awakened to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment in this world
with its devas, Mara, and Brahma, in this population with its ascetics
and brahmins, its devas and humans. But when I directly knew all
this as it really is, then I claimed to have awakened to the unsur-
passed perfect enlightenment in this world with ... its devas and
humans.
"And how, monks, are there four phases? I directly knew form, its
origin, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation. I directly
knew feeling ... perception ... volitional formations ... consciousness,
its origin, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation.
336 In the Buddha's Words
"And what, monks, is form? The four great elements and the form
derived from the four great elements: this is called form. With the aris-
ing of nutriment there is the arising of form. With the cessation of nutri-
ment there is the cessation of form. This Noble Eightfold Path is the way
leading to the cessation of form; that is, right view ... right concentration.
"Whatever ascetics and brahmins, having thus directly known form,
its origin, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation, are prac-
ticing for the purpose of disenchantment with form, for its fading away
and cessation, they are practicing well. Those who are practicing well
have gained a foothold in this Dhamma and Discipline.
24
"And whatever ascetics and brahmins, having thus directly known
form, its origin, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation,
through disenchantment with form, through its fading away and ces-
sation, are liberated by nonclinging, they are well liberated. Those who
are well liberated are consummate ones. As to those consummate ones,
there is no round for their manifestation.
25
"And what, monks, is feeling? There are these six classes of feeling:
feeling born of eye-contact, feeling born of ear-contact, feeling born
of nose-contact, feeling born of tongue-contact, feeling born of body-
contact, feeling born of mind-contact. This is called feeling. With the
arising of contact there is the arising of feeling. With the cessation of
contact there is the cessation of feeling. This Noble Eightfold Path is
the way leading to the cessation of feeling; that is, right view ... right
concentration.
"Whatever ascetics and brahmins, having thus directly known feel-
ing, its origin, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation, are
practicing for the purpose of disenchantment with feeling, for its fad-
ing away and cessation, they are practicing well. Those who are prac-
ticing well have gained a foothold in this Dhamma and Discipline.
"And whatever ascetics and brahmins, having thus directly known
feeling ... and the way leading to its cessation ... As to those consum-
mate ones, there is no round for their manifestation.
"And what, monks, is perception? There are these six classes of per-
ception: perception of forms, perception of sounds, perception of
odors, perception of tastes, perception of tactile objects, perception of
mental phenomena. This is called perception. With the arising of con-
tact there is the arising of perception. With the cessation of contact
there is the cessation of perception. This Noble Eightfold Path is the
ining the Light of Wisdom 35/
way leading to the cessation of perception; that is, right view ... right
concentration.
"Whatever ascetics and brahmins ... As to those consummate ones,
there is no round for their manifestation.
"And what, monks, are volitional formations? There are these six
classes of volition:
26
volition regarding forms, volition regarding
sounds, volition regarding odors, volition regarding tastes, volition
regarding tactile objects, volition regarding mental phenomena. These
are called volitional formations. With the arising of contact there is the
arising of volitional formations. With the cessation of contact there is
the cessation of volitional formations. This Noble Eightfold Path is the
way leading to the cessation of volitional formations; that is, right view
... right concentration.
"Whatever ascetics and brahmins ... As to those consummate ones,
there is no round for their manifestation.
"And what, monks, is consciousness? There are these six classes of
consciousness: eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, nose-conscious-
ness, tongue-consciousness, body-consciousness, mind-consciousness.
This is called consciousness. With the arising of name-and-form there
is the arising of consciousness.
27
With the cessation of name-and-form
there is the cessation of consciousness. This Noble Eightfold Path is
the way leading to the cessation of consciousness; that is, right view ...
right concentration.
"Whatever ascetics and brahmins, having thus directly known con-
sciousness, its origin, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessa-
tion, are practicing for the purpose of disenchantment with
consciousness, for its fading away and cessation, they are practicing
well. Those who are practicing well have gained a foothold in this
Dhamma and Discipline.
"And whatever ascetics and brahmins, having thus directly known
consciousness, its origin, its cessation, and the way leading to its ces-
sation, through disenchantment with consciousness, through its fading
away and cessation, are liberated by nonclinging, they are well liber-
ated. Those who are well liberated are consummate ones. As to those
consummate ones, there is no round for their manifestation."
(SN 22:56; III 58-61)
338 In the Buddha's Words
(b) A Catechism on the Aggregates
On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at Savatthi in the East-
ern Park, in the Mansion of Migara's Mother, together with a great
Sahgha of monks. Now on that occasion—the uposatha day of the fif-
teenth, a full-moon night—the Blessed One was sitting out in the open
surrounded by the Sahgha of monks.
Then a certain monk rose from his seat, arranged his upper robe over
one shoulder, raised his joined hands in reverential salutation toward
the Blessed One, and said to him: "Venerable sir, I would ask the
Blessed One about a certain point, if the Blessed One would grant me
the favor of answering my question."
"Well then, monk, sit down in your own seat and ask whatever
you wish."
"Yes, venerable sir," that monk replied. Then he sat down in his own
seat and said to the Blessed One:
"Aren't these the five aggregates subject to clinging, venerable sir:
that is, the form aggregate subject to clinging, the feeling aggregate
subject to clinging, the perception aggregate subject to clinging, the
volitional formations aggregate subject to clinging, the consciousness
aggregate subject to clinging?"
"They are, monk."
Saying, "Good, venerable sir," that monk delighted and rejoiced in
the Blessed One's statement. Then he asked the Blessed One a further
question:
"But, venerable sir, in what are these five aggregates subject to cling-
ing rooted?"
"These five aggregates subject to clinging, monk, are rooted in
desire."
28
"Venerable sir, is that clinging the same as these five aggregates sub-
ject to clinging, or is the clinging something apart from the five aggre-
gates subject to clinging?"
"Monk, that cling ing is neither the same as the five aggregates sub-
ject to clinging, nor is the clinging something apart from the five aggre-
gates subject to clinging. But rather, the desire and lust for them, that
is the clinging there."
29
Saying, "Good, venerable sir," that monk ... asked the Blessed One
a further question:
"But, venerable sir, can there be diversity in the desire and lust for
the five aggregates subject to clinging?"
Shining the Light of Wisdom 339
"There can be, monk," the Blessed One said. "Here, monk, it occurs
to someone: 'May I be of such form in the future! May I be of such feel-
ing in the future! May I be of such perception in the future! May I be
of such volitional formations in the future! May I be of such conscious-
ness in the future!' Thus, monk, there can be diversity in the desire and
lust for the five aggregates subject to clinging."
Saying, "Good, venerable sir," that monk ... asked the Blessed One
a further question:
"In what way, venerable sir, does the designation 'aggregates' apply
to the aggregates?"
"Whatever kind of form there is, monk, whether past, future, or pres-
ent, internal or external, gross or subtle, inferior or superior, far or near:
this is called the form aggregate. Whatever kind of feeling there is,
whether past, future, or present, internal or external, gross or subtle,
inferior or superior, far or near: this is called the feeling aggregate.
Whatever kind of perception there is, whether past, future, or present,
internal or external, gross or subtle, inferior or superior, far or near:
this is called the perception aggregate. Whatever kind of volitional for-
mations there are, whether past, future, or present, internal or external,
gross or subtle, inferior or superior, far or near: this is called the voli-
tional formations aggregate. Whatever kind of consciousness there is,
whether past, future, or present, internal or external, gross or subtle,
inferior or superior, far or near: this is called the consciousness aggre-
gate. It is in this way, monk, that the designation 'aggregates' applies
to the aggregates."
Saying, "Good, venerable sir," that monk ... asked the Blessed One
a further question:
"What is the cause and condition, venerable sir, for the manifestation
of the form aggregate? What is the cause and condition for the mani-
festation of the feeling aggregate?... for the manifestation of the per-
ception aggregate?... for the manifestation of the volitional formations
aggregate?... for the manifestation of the consciousness aggregate?"
"The four great elements, monk, are the cause and condition for the
manifestation of the form aggregate. Contact is the cause and condi-
tion for the manifestation of the feeling aggregate, the perception
aggregate, and the volitional formations aggregate. Name-and-form is
the cause and condition for the manifestation of the consciousness
aggregate."
"Venerable sir, how does identity view come to be?"
340 In the Buddha's Words
"Here, monk, the uninstructed worldling, who is not a seer of the
noble ones and is unskilled and undisciplined in their Dhamma, who
is not a seer of superior persons and is unskilled and undisciplined in
their Dhamma, regards form as self, or self as possessing form, or form
as in self, or self as in form. He regards feeling as self ... perception as
self ... volitional formations as self ... consciousness as self, or self as
possessing consciousness, or consciousness as in self, or self as in con-
sciousness. That is how identity view comes to be."
"But, venerable sir, how does identity view not come to be?"
"Here, monk, the instructed noble disciple, who is a seer of the noble
ones and is skilled and disciplined in their Dhamma, who is a seer of
superior persons and is skilled and disciplined in their Dhamma, does
not regard form as self, or self as possessing form, or form as in self, or
self as in form. He does not regard feeling as self ... perception as self
... volitional formations as self ... consciousness as self, or self as pos-
sessing consciousness, or consciousness as in self, or self as in con-
sciousness. That is how identity view does not come to be."
"What, venerable sir, is the gratification, the danger, and the escape
in the case of the five aggregates?"
"The pleasure and joy, monk, that arise in dependence on form: this
is the gratification in form. That form is impermanent, suffering, and
subject to change: this is the danger in form. The removal and aban-
donment of desire and lust for form: this is the escape from form. The
pleasure and joy that arise in dependence on feeling ... in dependence
on perception ... in dependence on volitional formations ... in depend-
ence on consciousness: this is the gratification in consciousness. That
consciousness is impermanent, suffering, and subject to change: this is
the danger in consciousness. The removal and abandonment of desire
and lust for consciousness: this is the escape from consciousness."
Saying, "Good, venerable sir," that monk delighted and rejoiced in
the Blessed One's statement. Then he asked the Blessed One a further
question:
"Venerable sir, how should one know and see so that, in regard to this
body with consciousness and in regard to all external signs, I-making,
mine-making, and the underlying tendency to conceit no longer occur
within?"
30
"Any kind of form whatsoever, monk, whether past, future, or pres-
ent, internal or external, gross or subtle, inferior or superior, far or
Shining the Light of Wisdom 341
near—one sees all form as it really is with correct wisdom thus: This
is not mine, this I am not, this is not my self.'
"Any kind of feeling whatsoever ... Any kind of perception whatso-
ever ... Any kind of volitional formations whatsoever ... Any kind of
consciousness whatsoever, whether past, future, or present, internal
or external, gross or subtle, inferior or superior, far or near—one sees
all consciousness as it really is with correct wisdom thus: 'This is not
mine, this I am not, this is not my self.'
"When one knows and sees thus, monk, then in regard to this body
with consciousness and in regard to all external signs, I-making, mine-
making, and the underlying tendency to conceit no longer occur
within."
(from SN 22: 82, abridged; 100-103 = MN 109, abridged; III 15-19)
(c) The Characteristic of Nonself
Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at
Baranasi in the Deer Park at Isipatana.
31
There the Blessed One
addressed the monks of the group of five thus: "Monks!"
"Venerable sir!" those monks replied. The Blessed One said this:
"Monks, form is nonself. For if, monks, form were self, this form
would not lead to affliction, and it would be possible to determine
form: 'Let my form be thus; let my form not be thus.' But because form
is nonself, form leads to affliction, and it is not possible to determine
form: 'Let my form be thus; let my form not be thus.'
32
"Feeling is nonself.... Perception is nonself.... Volitional formations
are nonself.... Consciousness is nonself. For if, monks, consciousness
were self, this consciousness would not lead to affliction, and it would
be possible to determine consciousness: 'Let my consciousness be thus;
let my consciousness not be thus.' But because consciousness is non-
self, consciousness leads to affliction, and it is not possible to deter-
mine consciousness: 'Let my consciousness be thus; let my
consciousness not be thus.'
"What do you think, monks, is form permanent or impermanent?"
"Impermanent, venerable sir."—"Is what is impermanent suffering or
happiness?"—"Suffering, venerable sir."—"Is what is impermanent,
suffering, and subject to change fit to be regarded thus: 'This is mine,
this I am, this is my self?"—"No, venerable sir."
342 In the Buddha's Words
"Is feeling permanent or impermanent?... Is perception permanent
or impermanent?... Are volitional formations permanent or imperma-
nent?... Is consciousness permanent or impermanent?"—"Imperma-
nent, venerable sir."—"Is what is impermanent suffering or
happiness?"—"Suffering, venerable sir."—"Is what is impermanent,
suffering, and subject to change fit to be regarded thus: This is mine,
this I am, this is my self?"—"No, venerable sir."
"Therefore, monks, any kind of form whatsoever, whether past,
future, or present, internal or external, gross or subtle, inferior or supe-
rior, far or near, all form should be seen as it really is with correct wis-
dom thus: This is not mine, this I am not, this is not my self.'
"Any kind of feeling whatsoever ... Any kind of perception whatso-
ever ... Any kind of volitional formations whatsoever ... Any kind of
consciousness whatsoever, whether past, future, or present, internal
or external, gross or subtle, inferior or superior, far or near, all con-
sciousness should be seen as it really is with correct wisdom thus: This
is not mine, this I am not, this is not my self.'
"Seeing thus, monks, the instructed noble disciple becomes disen-
chanted with form, disenchanted with feeling, disenchanted with per-
ception, disenchanted with volitional formations, disenchanted with
consciousness. Becoming disenchanted, he becomes dispassionate.
Through dispassion [his mind] is liberated. When it is liberated there
comes the knowledge: 'It's liberated.' He understands: 'Destroyed is
birth, the spiritual life has been lived, what had to be done has been
done, there is no more coming back to any state of being.'"
That is what the Blessed One said. Elated, those monks delighted in
the Blessed One's statement. And while this discourse was being spo-
ken, the minds of the monks of the group of five were liberated from
the taints by nonclinging.
(SN 22:59; III 66-68)
(d) Impermanent, Suffering, Nonself
"Monks, form is impermanent. What is impermanent is suffering.
What is suffering is nonself. What is nonself should be seen as it really
is with correct wisdom thus: This is not mine, this I am not, this is not
my self.' When one sees this thus as it really is with correct wisdom,
the mind becomes dispassionate and is liberated from the taints by
nonclinging.
bhming tne ugnt oj wisaom o^o
"Feeling is impermanent.... Perception is impermanent.... Volitional
formations are impermanent.... Consciousness is impermanent. What
is impermanent is suffering. What is suffering is nonself. What is non-
self should be seen as it really is with correct wisdom thus: This is not
mine, this I am not, this is not my self.' When one sees this thus as it
really is with correct wisdom, the mind becomes dispassionate and is
liberated from the taints by nonclinging.
"If, monks, a monk's mind has become dispassionate toward the
form element, it is liberated from the taints by nonclinging. If his mind
has become dispassionate toward the feeling element ... toward the
perception element ... toward the volitional formations element ...
toward the consciousness element, it is liberated from the taints by
nonclinging.
"By being liberated, it is steady; by being steady, it is content; by
being content, he is not agitated. Being unagitated, he personally
attains Nibbana. He understands: 'Destroyed is birth, the spiritual life
has been lived, what had to be done has been done, there is no more
coming back to any state of being.'"
(SN 22:45; III 44-45)
(e) A Lump of Foam
On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at Ayojjha on the bank
of the river Ganges. There the Blessed One addressed the monks thus:
"Monks, suppose that this river Ganges was carrying along a great
lump of foam. A man with good sight would inspect it, ponder it, and
carefully investigate it, and it would appear to him to be void, hollow,
insubstantial. For what substance could there be in a lump of foam? So
too, monks, whatever kind of form there is, whether past, future, or
present, internal or external, gross or subtle, inferior or superior, far or
near: a monk inspects it, ponders it, and carefully investigates it, and
it would appear to him to be void, hollow, insubstantial. For what sub-
stance could there be in form?
33
"Suppose, monks, that in the autumn, when it is raining and big rain
drops are falling, a water bubble arises and bursts on the surface of the
water. A man with good sight would inspect it, ponder it, and care-
fully investigate it, and it would appear to him to be void, hollow,
insubstantial. For what substance could there be in a water bubble? So
344 In the Buddha's Words
too, monks, whatever kind of feeling there is, whether past, future, or
present, internal or external, gross or subtle, inferior or superior, far or
near: a monk inspects it, ponders it, and carefully investigates it, and
it would appear to him to be void, hollow, insubstantial. For what sub-
stance could there be in feeling?
34
"Suppose, monks, that in the last month of the hot season, at high
noon, a shimmering mirage appears. A man with good sight would
inspect it, ponder it, and carefully investigate it, and it would appear
to him to be void, hollow, insubstantial. For what substance could there
be in a mirage? So too, monks, whatever kind of perception there is,
whether past, future, or present, internal or external, gross or subtle,
inferior or superior, far or near: a monk inspects it, ponders it, and
carefully investigates it, and it would appear to him to be void, hollow,
insubstantial. For what substance could there be in perception?
35
"Suppose, monks, that a man needing heartwood, seeking heartwood,
wandering in search of heartwood, would take a sharp axe and enter
a forest. There he would see the trunk of a large banana tree, straight,
fresh, without a fruit-bud core. He would cut it down at the root, cut
off the crown, and unroll the coil. As he unrolls the coil, he would not
find even softwood, let alone heartwood. A man with good sight would
inspect it, ponder it, and carefully investigate it, and it would appear
to him to be void, hollow, insubstantial. For what substance could there
be in the trunk of a banana tree? So too, monks, whatever kind of voli-
tional formations there are, whether past, future, or present, internal or
external, gross or subtle, inferior or superior, far or near: a monk
inspects them, ponders them, and carefully investigates them. As he
investigates them, they appear to him to be void, hollow, insubstantial.
For what substance could there be in volitional formations?
36
"Suppose, monks, that a magician or a magician's apprentice would
display a magical illusion at a crossroads. A man with good sight
would inspect it, ponder it, and carefully investigate it, and it would
appear to him to be void, hollow, insubstantial. For what substance
could there be in a magical illusion? So too, monks, whatever kind of
consciousness there is, whether past, future, or present, internal or
external, gross or subtle, inferior or superior, far or near: a monk
inspects it, ponders it, and carefully investigates it, and it would appear
to him to be void, hollow, insubstantial. For what substance could there
be in consciousness?
37
Shining the Light of Wisdom 345
"Seeing thus, monks, the instructed noble disciple becomes disen-
chanted with form, disenchanted with feeling, disenchanted with per-
ception, disenchanted with volitional formations, disenchanted with
consciousness. Becoming disenchanted, he becomes dispassionate.
Through dispassion [his mind] is liberated. When it is liberated there
comes the knowledge: 'It's liberated.' He understands: 'Destroyed is
birth, the spiritual life has been lived, what had to be done has been
done, there is no more coming back to any state of being.'"
(SN 22:95; III 140-42)
(2) By Way of the Six Sense Bases
(a) Full Understanding
"Monks, without directly knowing and fully understanding the all,
without developing dispassion toward it and abandoning it, one is
incapable of destroying suffering.
"And what, monks, is that all? Without directly knowing and fully
understanding the eye, without developing dispassion toward it and
abandoning it, one is incapable of destroying suffering. Without
directly knowing and fully understanding forms ... eye-consciousness
... eye-contact... and whatever feeling arises with eye-contact as con-
dition ... without developing dispassion toward it and abandoning it,
one is incapable of destroying suffering.
"Without directly knowing and fully understanding the ear ... the
mind ... and whatever feeling arises with mind-contact as condition ...
without developing dispassion toward it and abandoning it, one is
incapable of destroying suffering.
"This, monks, is the all. Without directly knowing and fully under-
standing this all ... one is incapable of destroying suffering.
"Monks, by directly knowing and fully understanding the all, by
developing dispassion toward it and abandoning it, one is capable of
destroying suffering.
"And what, monks, is that all? By directly knowing and fully under-
standing the eye ... the mind ... and whatever feeling arises with
mind-contact as condition ... by developing dispassion toward it and
abandoning it, one is capable of destroying suffering.
"This, monks, is the all by directly knowing and fully understanding
which ... one is capable of destroying suffering."
(SN 35:26; IV 17-18)
346 In the Buddha's Words
(b) Burning
On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at Gaya, at Gaya's
Head, together with a thousand monks. There the Blessed One
addressed the monks thus:
38
"Monks, all is burning. And what, monks, is the all that is burning?
The eye is burning, forms are burning, eye-consciousness is burning,
eye-contact is burning, and whatever feeling arises with eye-contact
as condition—whether pleasant or painful or neither-painful-nor-
pleasant—that too is burning. Burning with what? Burning with the
fire of lust, with the fire of hatred, with the fire of delusion; burning
with birth, aging, and death; with sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection,
and despair, I say.
"The ear is burning ... The mind is burning ... and whatever feeling
arises with mind-contact as condition—whether pleasant or painful or
neither-painful-nor-pleasant—that too is burning. Burning with what?
Burning with the fire of lust, with the fire of hatred, with the fire of
delusion; burning with birth, aging, and death; with sorrow, lamenta-
tion, pain, dejection, and despair, I say.
"Seeing thus, monks, the instructed noble disciple becomes disen-
chanted with the eye, with forms, with eye-consciousness, with eye-
contact, with whatever feeling arises with eye-contact as condition
whether pleasant or painful or neither-painful-nor-pleasant; becomes
disenchanted with the ear ... with the mind ... with whatever feeling
arises with mind-contact as condition.... Becoming disenchanted, he
becomes dispassionate. Through dispassion [his mind] is liberated.
When it is liberated there comes the knowledge: 'It's liberated.' He
understands: 'Destroyed is birth, the spiritual life has been lived, what
had to be done has been done, there is no more coming back to any state
of being.'"
This is what the Blessed One said. Elated, those monks delighted in
the Blessed One's statement. And while this discourse was being spo-
ken, the minds of the thousand monks were liberated from the taints
by nonclinging.
(SN 35:28; IV 19-20)
(c) Suitable for Attaining Nibbana
"Monks, I will teach you the way that is suitable for attaining Nibbana.
Listen....
Shining the Light of
"And what, monks, is the way that is suitable for attaining Nibbana?
Here, a monk sees the eye as impermanent, he sees forms as imperma-
nent, he sees eye-consciousness as impermanent, he sees eye-contact as
impermanent, he sees as impermanent whatever feeling arises with
eye-contact as condition, whether pleasant or painful or neither-
painful-nor-pleasant.
"He sees the ear as impermanent ... He sees the mind as imperma-
nent, he sees mental phenomena as impermanent, he sees mind-
consciousness as impermanent, he sees mind-contact as impermanent,
he sees as impermanent whatever feeling arises with mind-contact as
condition, whether pleasant or painful or neither-painful-nor-pleasant.
This, monks, is the way that is suitable for attaining Nibbana."
"He sees the eye as suffering ... he sees as suffering whatever feel-
ing arises with mind-contact as condition, whether pleasant or painful
or neither-painful-nor-pleasant. This, monks, is the way that is suit-
able for attaining Nibbana.
"He sees the eye as nonself ... he sees as nonself whatever feeling
arises with mind-contact as condition, whether pleasant or painful or
neither-painful-nor-pleasant. This, monks, is the way that is suitable
for attaining Nibbana."
(SN 35:147-49, combined; IV 133-35)
(d) Empty Is the World
Then the Venerable Ananda approached the Blessed One ... and said
to him: "Venerable sir, it is said, 'Empty is the world, empty is the
world.' In what way, venerable sir, is it said, 'Empty is the world'?"
"It is, Ananda, because it is empty of self and of what belongs to self
that it is said, 'Empty is the world.' And what is empty of self and of
what belongs to self? The eye, Ananda, is empty of self and of what
belongs to self. Forms are empty of self and of what belongs to self.
Eye-consciousness is empty of self and of what belongs to self. Eye-
contact is empty of self and of what belongs to self.... Whatever feel-
ing arises with mind-contact as condition—whether pleasant or painful
or neither-painful-nor-pleasant—that too is empty of self and of what
belongs to self.
"It is, Ananda, because it is empty of self and of what belongs to self
that it is said, 'Empty is the world.'"
(SN 35:85; IV 54)
348 In the Buddha's Words
(e) Consciousness Too Is Nonself
The Venerable Udayi asked the Venerable Ananda: "Friend Ananda, in
many ways [the nature of] this body has been declared, disclosed, and
revealed by the Blessed One thus: Tor such a reason this body is non-
self.' Is it possible to explain [the nature of] this consciousness in a sim-
ilar way—to teach, proclaim, establish, disclose, analyze, and elucidate
it thus: 'For such a reason this consciousness is nonself?"
"It is possible, friend Udayi. Doesn't eye-consciousness arise in
dependence on the eye and forms?"
"Yes, friend."
"If the cause and condition for the arising of eye-consciousness
would cease completely and totally without remainder, could eye-
consciousness be discerned?"
"No, friend."
"In this way, friend, this has been declared, disclosed, and
revealed by the Blessed One thus: 'For such a reason this conscious-
ness is nonself.'
"Doesn't ear-consciousness arise in dependence on the ear and
sounds?... Doesn't mind-consciousness arise in dependence on the
mind and mental phenomena?"
"Yes, friend."
"If the cause and condition for the arising of mind-consciousness
would cease completely and totally without remainder, could mind-
consciousness be discerned?"
"No, friend."
"In this way too, friend, this has been declared, disclosed, and
revealed by the Blessed One thus: 'For such a reason this consciousness
is nonself.'
"Suppose, friend, a man needing heartwood, seeking heartwood,
wandering in search of heartwood, would take a sharp axe and enter
a forest. There he would see the trunk of a large banana tree, straight,
fresh, without a fruit-bud core. He would cut it down at the root, cut
off the crown, and unroll the coil. As he unrolls the coil, he would not
find even softwood, let alone heartwood.
"So too, a monk does not recognize either a self or anything belong-
ing to a self in these six bases for contact. Since he does not recognize
anything thus, he does not cling to anything in the world. Not clinging,
he is not agitated. Being unagitated, he personally attains Nibbana. He
Shining the Light of
understands: 'Destroyed is birth, the spiritual life has been lived, what
had to be done has been done, there is no more coming back to any
state of being.'"
(SN 35:234; IV 166-68)
(3) By Way of the Elements
(a) The Eighteen Elements
"Monks, I will teach you the diversity of elements. The eye element,
form element, eye-consciousness element; the ear element, sound ele-
ment, ear-consciousness element; the nose element, odor element, nose-
consciousness element; the tongue element, taste element,
tongue-consciousness element; the body element, tactile-object element,
body-consciousness element; the mind element, mental-phenomena
element, mind-consciousness element. This, monks, is called the diver-
sity of elements."
(SN 14:1; II140)
(b) The Four Elements
"Monks, there are these four elements. What four? The earth element,
the water element, the heat element, the air element.
"Those ascetics or brahmins, monks, who do not understand as they
really are the gratification, the danger, and the escape in the case of
these four elements: these I do not consider to be ascetics among asce-
tics or brahmins among brahmins, and these venerable ones do not, by
realizing it for themselves with direct knowledge, in this very life enter
and dwell in the goal of asceticism or the goal of brahminhood.
"But, monks, those ascetics and brahmins who understand as they
really are the gratification, the danger, and the escape in the case of
these four elements: these I consider to be ascetics among ascetics and
brahmins among brahmins, and these venerable ones, by realizing it
for themselves with direct knowledge, in this very life enter and dwell
in the goal of asceticism and the goal of brahminhood."
"Those ascetics or brahmins, monks, who do not understand as they
really are the origin and the passing away, the gratification, the danger,
and the escape in the case of these four elements: these I do not con-
sider to be ascetics among ascetics....
350 In the Buddha's Words
"But, monks, those ascetics and brahmins who understand these
things: these I consider to be ascetics among ascetics and brahmins
among brahmins, and these venerable ones, by realizing it for them-
selves with direct knowledge, in this very life enter and dwell in the
goal of asceticism and the goal of brahminhood."
"Monks, those ascetics or brahmins who do not understand the earth
element, its origin, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation;
who do not understand the water element ... the heat element ... the
air element, its origin, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation:
these I do not consider to be ascetics among ascetics....
"But, monks, those ascetics and brahmins who understand these
things: these I consider to be ascetics among ascetics and brahmins
among brahmins, and these venerable ones, by realizing it for them-
selves with direct knowledge, in this very life enter and dwell in the
goal of asceticism and the goal of brahminhood."
(SN 14:37-39, combined; II175-77)
(c) The Six Elements
13. "How, monk, does one not neglect wisdom?
39
There are these six
elements: the earth element, the water element, the fire element, the
air element, the space element, and the consciousness element.
14. "What, monk, is the earth element? The earth element may be
either internal or external. What is the internal earth element? What-
ever internally, belonging to oneself, is solid, solidified, and clung-to,
that is, head-hairs, body-hairs, nails, teeth, skin, flesh, sinews, bones,
bone-marrow, kidneys, heart, liver, diaphragm, spleen, lungs, intes-
tines, mesentery, stomach, feces, or whatever else internally, belong-
ing to oneself, is solid, solidified, and clung-to: this is called the internal
earth element. Now both the internal earth element and the external
earth element are simply earth element. And that should be seen as it
really is with correct wisdom thus: This is not mine, this I am not, this
is not my self.' When one sees it thus as it really is with correct wisdom,
one becomes disenchanted with the earth element and makes the mind
dispassionate toward the earth element.
15. "What, monk, is the water element? The water element may be
either internal or external. What is the internal water element? What-
ever internally, belonging to oneself, is water, watery, and clung-to,
Shining the Light of Wisdom 351
that is, bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, fat, tears, grease, spittle, snot,
oil-of-the-joints, urine, or whatever else internally, belonging to oneself,
is water, watery, and clung-to: this is called the internal water element.
Now both the internal water element and the external water element
are simply water element. And that should be seen as it really is with
correct wisdom thus: 'This is not mine, this I am not, this is not my
self.' When one sees it thus as it really is with correct wisdom, one
becomes disenchanted with the water element and makes the mind
dispassionate toward the water element.
16. "What, monk, is the fire element? The fire element may be either
internal or external. What is the internal fire element? Whatever inter-
nally, belonging to oneself, is fire, fiery, and clung-to, that is, that by
which one is warmed, ages, and is consumed, and that by which
what is eaten, drunk, consumed, and tasted gets completely digested,
or whatever else internally, belonging to oneself, is fire, fiery, and
clung-to: this is called the internal fire element. Now both the inter-
nal fire element and the external fire element are simply fire element.
And that should be seen as it really is with correct wisdom thus: 'This
is not mine, this I am not, this is not my self.' When one sees it thus
as it really is with correct wisdom, one becomes disenchanted with
the fire element and makes the mind dispassionate toward the fire
element.
17. "What, monk, is the air element? The air element may be either
internal or external. What is the internal air element? Whatever inter-
nally, belonging to oneself, is air, airy, and clung-to, that is, up-going
winds, down-going winds, winds in the belly, winds in the bowels,
winds that course through the limbs, in-breath and out-breath, or
whatever else internally, belonging to oneself, is air, airy, and clung-to:
this is called the internal air element. Now both the internal air ele-
ment and the external air element are simply air element. And that
should be seen as it really is with correct wisdom thus: 'This is not
mine, this I am not, this is not my self.' When one sees it thus as it really
is with correct wisdom, one becomes disenchanted with the air ele-
ment and makes the mind dispassionate toward the air element.
18. "What, monk, is the space element? The space element may be
either internal or external. What is the internal space element? What-
ever internally, belonging to oneself, is space, spatial, and clung-to,
that is, the holes of the ears, the nostrils, the door of the mouth, and that
352 In the Buddha's Words
[aperture] whereby what is eaten, drunk, consumed, and tasted gets
swallowed, and where it collects, and whereby it is excreted from
below, or whatever else internally, belonging to oneself, is space, spa-
tial, and clung-to: this is called the internal space element. Now both
the internal space element and the external space element are simply
space element. And that should be seen as it really is with correct wis-
dom thus: This is not mine, this I am not, this is not my self.' When one
sees it thus as it really is with correct wisdom, one becomes disen-
chanted with the space element and makes the mind dispassionate
toward the space element.
19. "Then there remains only consciousness, purified and bright.
40
What does one cognize with that consciousness? One cognizes: '[This
is] pleasant'; one cognizes: '[This is] painful'; one cognizes: '[This is]
neither-painful-nor-pleasant.' In dependence on a contact to be felt as
pleasant there arises a pleasant feeling.
41
When one feels a pleasant
feeling, one understands: T feel a pleasant feeling.' One understands:
'With the cessation of that same contact to be felt as pleasant, its corre-
sponding feeling—the pleasant feeling that arose in dependence on
that contact to be felt as pleasant—ceases and subsides.' In depend-
ence on a contact to be felt as painful there arises a painful feeling.
When one feels a painful feeling, one understands: T feel a painful feel-
ing.' One understands: 'With the cessation of that same contact to be
felt as painful, its corresponding feeling—the painful feeling that arose
in dependence on that contact to be felt as painful—ceases and sub-
sides.' In dependence on a contact to be felt as neither-painful-nor-
pleasant there arises a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling. When one
feels a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling, one understands: T feel a
neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling.' One understands: 'With the ces-
sation of that same contact to be felt as neither-painful-nor-pleasant, its
corresponding feeling—the neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling that
arose in dependence on that contact to be felt as neither-painful-nor-
pleasant—ceases and subsides.' Monk, just as from the contact and
friction of two fire-sticks heat is generated and fire is produced, and
with the separation and disjunction of these two fire-sticks the corre-
sponding heat ceases and subsides; so too, in dependence on a contact
to be felt as pleasant ... to be felt as painful ... to be felt as neither-
painful-nor-pleasant there arises a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feel-
ing... . One understands: 'With the cessation of that same contact to be
Shining the Light of Wisdom 353
felt as neither-painful-nor-pleasant, its corresponding feeling ... ceases
and subsides.'"
(from MN 140: Dhatuvibhanga Sutta; III 240-43)
(4) By Way of Dependent Origination
(a) What Is Dependent Origination?
"Monks, I will teach you dependent origination. Listen to that and
attend closely, I will speak."—"Yes, venerable sir," those monks
replied. The Blessed One said this:
"And what, monks, is dependent origination? With ignorance as
condition, volitional formations [come to be]; with volitional forma-
tions as condition, consciousness; with consciousness as condition,
name-and-form; with name-and-form as condition, the six sense bases;
with the six sense bases as condition, contact; with contact as condition,
feeling; with feeling as condition, craving; with craving as condition,
clinging; with clinging as condition, existence; with existence as condi-
tion, birth; with birth as condition, aging-and-death, sorrow, lamenta-
tion, pain, dejection, and despair come to be. Such is the origin of this
whole mass of suffering. This, monks, is called dependent origination.
"But with the remainderless fading away and cessation of ignorance
comes cessation of volitional formations; with the cessation of voli-
tional formations, cessation of consciousness; with the cessation of con-
sciousness, cessation of name-and-form; with the cessation of
name-and-form, cessation of the six sense bases; with the cessation of
the six sense bases, cessation of contact; with the cessation of contact,
cessation of feeling; with the cessation of feeling, cessation of craving;
with the cessation of craving, cessation of clinging; with the cessation
of clinging, cessation of existence; with the cessation of existence, ces-
sation of birth; with the cessation of birth, aging-and-death, sorrow,
lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair cease. Such is the cessation of
this whole mass of suffering."
(SN 12:1; II1-2)
(b) The Stableness of the Dhamma
"Monks, I will teach you dependent origination and dependency
arisen phenomena. Listen and attend closely, I will speak."
"Yes, venerable sir," those monks replied. The Blessed One said this:
354 In the Buddha's Words
"And what, monks, is dependent origination? 'With birth as condi-
tion, aging-and-death [comes to be]': whether there is an arising of
Tathagatas or no arising of Tathagatas, that element still persists, the
stableness of the Dhamma, the fixed course of the Dhamma, specific
conditionality.
42
A Tathagata awakens to this and breaks through to it.
Having done so, he explains it, teaches it, proclaims it, establishes it,
discloses it, analyzes it, elucidates it. And he says: 'See! With birth as
condition, monks, aging-and-death arises.'
"'With existence as condition, birth' ... 'With clinging as condition,
existence' ... 'With craving as condition, clinging' ... 'With feeling as
condition, craving' ... 'With contact as condition, feeling' ... 'With the
six sense bases as condition, contact' ... 'With name-and-form as con-
dition, the six sense bases' ... 'With consciousness as condition, name-
and-form' ... 'With volitional formations as condition, consciousness'...
'With ignorance as condition, volitional formations': whether there is an
arising of Tathagatas or no arising of Tathagatas, that element still per-
sists, the stableness of the Dhamma, the fixed course of the Dhamma,
specific conditionality. A Tathagata awakens to this and breaks through
to it. Having done so, he explains it, teaches it, proclaims it, establishes
it, discloses it, analyzes it, elucidates it. And he says: 'See! With igno-
rance as condition, monks, volitional formations arise.'
"Thus, monks, the actuality, the inerrancy, the invariability, the spe-
cific conditionality in this: this is called dependent origination.
43
"And what, monks, are the dependently arisen phenomena? Aging-
and-death, monks, is impermanent, conditioned, dependently arisen,
subject to destruction, vanishing, fading away, and cessation. Birth is
impermanent ... Existence is impermanent ... Clinging is imperma-
nent ... Craving is impermanent... Feeling is impermanent... Contact
is impermanent... The six sense bases are impermanent... Name-and-
form is impermanent ... Consciousness is impermanent ... Volitional
formations are impermanent ... Ignorance is impermanent, condi-
tioned, dependently arisen, subject to destruction, vanishing, fading
away, and cessation. These, monks, are called the dependently arisen
phenomena.
"When, monks, a noble disciple has clearly seen with correct wis-
dom as it really is this dependent origination and these dependently
arisen phenomena, it is impossible that he will run back into the past,
thinking: 'Did I exist in the past? Did I not exist in the past? What was
Shining the Light of Wisdom 355
I in the past? How was I in the past? Having been what, what did I
become in the past?' Or that he will run forward into the future, think-
ing: 'Will I exist in the future? Will I not exist in the future? What will
I be in the future? How will I be in the future? Having been what, what
will I become in the future?' Or that he will now be inwardly confused
about the present thus: 'Do I exist? Do I not exist? What am I? How am
I? This being—where has it come from, and where will it go?'
"For what reason? Because the noble disciple has clearly seen with
correct wisdom as it really is this dependent origination and these
dependently arisen phenomena."
(SN 12:20; II 25-27)
(c) Forty-Four Cases of Knowledge
"Monks, I will teach you forty-four cases of knowledge. Listen to that
and attend closely, I will speak."
"Yes, venerable sir," those monks replied. The Blessed One said this:
"Monks, what are the forty-four cases of knowledge? Knowledge of
aging-and-death, knowledge of its origin, knowledge of its cessation,
knowledge of the way leading to its cessation. Knowledge of birth ...
Knowledge of existence ... Knowledge of clinging ... Knowledge of
craving ... Knowledge of feeling ... Knowledge of contact ... Knowl-
edge of the six sense bases ... Knowledge of name-and-form ... Knowl-
edge of consciousness ... Knowledge of volitional formations,
knowledge of their origin, knowledge of their cessation, knowledge of
the way leading to their cessation. These, monks, are the forty-four
cases of knowledge.
"And what, monks, is aging-and-death?... [definition as in Text IX,3
§22] ... Thus this aging and this death are together called aging-and-
death. With the arising of birth there is the arising of aging-and-death.
With the cessation of birth there is the cessation of aging-and-death.
This Noble Eightfold Path is the way leading to the cessation of aging-
and-death; that is, right view ... right concentration.
"When, monks, a noble disciple thus understands aging-and-death,
its origin, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation, this is his
knowledge of the principle.
44
By means of this principle that is seen,
understood, immediately attained, fathomed, he applies the method to
the past and the future thus: 'Whatever ascetics and brahmins in the
past directly knew aging-and-death, its origin, its cessation, and the
356 In the Buddha's Words
way leading to its cessation, all these directly knew it in the very same
way that I do now. Whatever ascetics and brahmins in the future will
directly know aging-and-death, its origin, its cessation, and the way
leading to its cessation, all these will directly know it in the very same
way that I do now.' This is his knowledge of entailment.
45
"When, monks, a noble disciple has purified and cleansed these two
kinds of knowledge—knowledge of the principle and knowledge of
entailment—he is then called a noble disciple who is accomplished in
view, accomplished in vision, who has arrived at this true Dhamma,
who sees this true Dhamma, who possesses a trainee's knowledge, a
trainee's true knowledge, who has entered the stream of the Dhamma,
a noble one with penetrative wisdom, one who stands squarely before
the door to the Deathless.
"And what, monks, is birth?... What are the volitional formations?...
[definitions as in Text IX,3] ... This Noble Eightfold Path is the way
leading to the cessation of volitional formations; that is, right view ...
right concentration.
"When, monks, a noble disciple thus understands volitional forma-
tions, their origin, their cessation, and the way leading to their cessa-
tion, this is his knowledge of the principle. By means of this principle
that is seen, understood, immediately attained, fathomed, he applies
the method to the past and to the future.... This is his knowledge of
entailment.
"When, monks, a noble disciple has purified and cleansed these two
kinds of knowledge—knowledge of the principle and knowledge of
entailment—he is then called a noble disciple who is accomplished in
view ... one who stands squarely before the door to the Deathless."
(SN 12:33; II 56-59)
(d) A Teaching by the Middle
At Savatthi, the Venerable Kaccanagotta approached the Blessed One,
paid homage to him, sat down to one side, and said to him: "Venera-
ble sir, it is said, 'right view, right view.' In what way, venerable sir, is
there right view?"
"This world, Kaccana, for the most part depends upon a duality
upon the idea of existence and the idea of nonexistence.
46
But for one
who sees the origin of the world as it really is with correct wisdom,
there is no idea of nonexistence in regard to the world. And for one
Shining the Light of
who sees the cessation of the world as it really is with correct wisdom,
there is no idea of existence in regard to the world.
47
"This world, Kaccana, is for the most part shackled by engagement,
clinging, and adherence. But this one [with right view] does not
become engaged and cling through that engagement and clinging,
mental standpoint, adherence, underlying tendency; he does not take
a stand about 'my self.' He has no perplexity or doubt that what arises
is only suffering arising, what ceases is only suffering ceasing.
48
His
knowledge about this is independent of others. It is in this way,
Kaccana, that there is right view.
'"All exists': Kaccana, this is one extreme. 'All does not exist': this is
the second extreme. Without veering toward either of these extremes,
the Tathagata teaches the Dhamma by the middle: 'With ignorance as
condition, volitional formations [come to be]; with volitional forma-
tions as condition, consciousness.... Such is the origin of this whole
mass of suffering. But with the remainderless fading away and cessa-
tion of ignorance comes cessation of volitional formations; with the
cessation of volitional formations, cessation of consciousness.... Such
is the cessation of this whole mass of suffering/"
(SN 12:15; II16-17)
(e) The Continuance of Consciousness
"Monks, what one intends and what one plans and whatever one has
a tendency toward: this becomes a basis for the continuance of con-
sciousness. When there is a basis there is a support for the establishing
of consciousness. When consciousness is established and has come to
growth, there is the production of future renewed existence. When
there is the production of future renewed existence, future birth, aging-
and-death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair come to
be. Such is the origin of this whole mass of suffering.
49
"If, monks, one does not intend and does not plan but still has a
tendency toward something, this becomes a basis for the continuance
of consciousness. When there is a basis, there is a support for the
establishing of consciousness.... Such is the origin of this whole mass
of suffering.
50
"But, monks, when one does not intend and does not plan and does
not have a tendency toward anything, no basis exists for the continu-
ance of consciousness. When there is no basis, there is no support for
358 In the Buddha's Words
the establishing of consciousness. When consciousness is unestab-
lished and does not come to growth, there is no production of future
renewed existence. When there is no production of future renewed
existence, future birth, aging-and-death, sorrow, lamentation, pain,
dejection, and despair cease. Such is the cessation of this whole mass
of suffering."
51
(SN 12:38; II 65-66)
(f) The Origin and Passing of the World
"Monks, I will teach you the origin and the passing away of the world.
Listen and attend closely, I will speak."
"Yes, venerable sir," the monks replied. The Blessed One said this:
"And what, monks, is the origin of the world? In dependence on the
eye and forms, eye-consciousness arises. The meeting of the three is
contact. With contact as condition, feeling [comes to be]; with feeling
as condition, craving; with craving as condition, clinging; with cling-
ing as condition, existence; with existence as condition, birth; with birth
as condition, aging-and-death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection,
and despair come to be. This, monks, is the origin of the world.
"In dependence on the ear and sounds ... In dependence on the nose
and odors ... In dependence on the tongue and tastes ... In dependence
on the body and tactile objects ... In dependence on the mind and men-
tal phenomena, mind-consciousness arises. The meeting of the three is
contact. With contact as condition, feeling [comes to be]; with feeling
as condition, craving; with craving as condition, clinging ... existence
... birth; with birth as condition, aging-and-death, sorrow, lamenta-
tion, pain, dejection, and despair come to be. This, monks, is the origin
of the world.
"And what, monks, is the passing away of the world? In depend-
ence on the eye and forms, eye-consciousness arises. The meeting of
the three is contact. With contact as condition, feeling [comes to be];
with feeling as condition, craving. But with the remainderless fading
away and cessation of that same craving comes cessation of clinging;
with the cessation of clinging, cessation of existence; with the cessa-
tion of existence, cessation of birth; with the cessation of birth, aging-
and-death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair cease.
Such is the cessation of this whole mass of suffering. This, monks, is
the passing away of the world.
Shining the Light of Wisdom 359
"In dependence on the ear and sounds ... In dependence on the
mind and mental phenomena, mind-consciousness arises. The meeting
of the three is contact. With contact as condition, feeling [comes to be];
with feeling as condition, craving. But with the remainderless fading
away and cessation of that same craving comes cessation of clinging ...
cessation of existence ... cessation of birth; with the cessation of birth,
aging-and-death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair
cease. Such is the cessation of this whole mass of suffering. This,
monks, is the passing away of the world."
(SN 12:44; II 73-74)
(5) By Way of the Four Noble Truths
(a) The Truths of All Buddhas
"Monks, whatever Perfectly Enlightened Buddhas in the past fully awak-
ened to things as they really are, all fully awakened to the Four Noble
Truths as they really are. Whatever Perfectly Enlightened Buddhas in the
future will fully awaken to things as they really are, all will fully awaken
to the Four Noble Truths as they really are. Whatever Perfectly Enlight-
ened Buddhas at present have fully awakened to things as they really are,
all have fully awakened to the Four Noble Truths as they really are.
"What four? The noble truth of suffering, the noble truth of the ori-
gin of suffering, the noble truth of the cessation of suffering, the noble
truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering. Whatever Per-
fectly Enlightened Buddhas fully awakened ... will fully awaken ...
have fully awakened to things as they really are, all have fully awak-
ened to these Four Noble Truths as they really are.
"Therefore, monks, an exertion should be made to understand: This
is suffering.' An exertion should be made to understand: 'This is the
origin of suffering.' An exertion should be made to understand: 'This
is the cessation of suffering.' An exertion should be made to under-
stand: 'This is the way leading to the cessation of suffering.'"
(SN 56:24; V 433-34)
(b) These Four Truths Are Actual
"Monks, these four things are actual, unerring, invariable.
52
What four?
'"This is suffering': this, monks, is actual, unerring, invariable. 'This
360 In the Buddha's Words
is the origin of suffering': this is actual, unerring, invariable. This is the
cessation of suffering': this is actual, unerring, invariable. This is the
way leading to the cessation of suffering': this is actual, unerring,
invariable.
"These four things, monks, are actual, unerring, invariable.
"Therefore, monks, an exertion should be made to understand: This
is suffering.'... An exertion should be made to understand: This is the
way leading to the cessation of suffering.'"
(SN 56:20; V 430-31)
(c) A Handful of Leaves
On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at Kosambi in a
simsapa grove. Then the Blessed One took up a few simsapa leaves in
his hand and addressed the monks thus: "What do you think, monks,
which is more numerous: these few leaves that I have taken up in my
hand or those in the grove overhead?"
"Venerable sir, the leaves that the Blessed One has taken up in his
hand are few, but those in the grove overhead are numerous."
"So too, monks, the things I have directly known but have not taught
you are numerous, while the things I have taught you are few. And
why, monks, have I not taught those many things? Because they are
without benefit, irrelevant to the fundamentals of the spiritual life, and
do not lead to disenchantment, to dispassion, to cessation, to peace, to
direct knowledge, to enlightenment, to Nibbana. Therefore I have not
taught them.
"And what, monks, have I taught? I have taught: This is suffering';
I have taught: This is the origin of suffering'; I have taught: This is the
cessation of suffering'; I have taught: 'This is the way leading to the ces-
sation of suffering.' And why, monks, have I taught this? Because this
is beneficial, relevant to the fundamentals of the spiritual life, and leads
to disenchantment, to dispassion, to cessation, to peace, to direct
knowledge, to enlightenment, to Nibbana. Therefore I have taught this.
"Therefore, monks, an exertion should be made to understand: This
is suffering.'... An exertion should be made to understand: This is the
way leading to the cessation of suffering.'"
(SN 56:31; V 437-38)
mg tne ugnx uj vv,
(d) Because of Not Understanding
On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling among the Vajjians at
Kotigama. There the Blessed One addressed the monks thus: "Monks,
it is because of not understanding and not penetrating the Four Noble
Truths that you and I have roamed and wandered through this long
course of samsara. What four?
"It is, monks, because of not understanding and not penetrating the
noble truth of suffering that you and I have roamed and wandered
through this long course of samsara. It is because of not understand-
ing and not penetrating the noble truth of the origin of suffering ... the
noble truth of the cessation of suffering ... the noble truth of the way
leading to the cessation of suffering that you and I have roamed and
wandered through this long course of samsara.
"That noble truth of suffering, monks, has been understood and pen-
etrated. That noble truth of the origin of suffering has been understood
and penetrated. That noble truth of the cessation of suffering has been
understood and penetrated. That noble truth of the way leading to the
cessation of suffering has been understood and penetrated. Craving
for existence has been cut off; the conduit to existence
53
has been
destroyed; now there is no more renewed existence."
(SN 56:21; V 431-32)
(e) The Precipice
On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at Rajagaha on Mount
Vulture Peak. Then the Blessed One addressed the monks thus: "Come,
monks, let us go to Inspiration Peak for the day's abiding."
"Yes, venerable sir," those monks replied. Then the Blessed One,
together with a number of monks, went to Inspiration Peak. A certain
monk saw the steep precipice off Inspiration Peak and said to the
Blessed One: "That precipice is indeed steep, venerable sir; that
precipice is extremely frightful. But is there, venerable sir, a precipice
steeper and more frightful than that one?"
"There is, monk."
"But what precipice, venerable sir, is steeper and more frightful than
that one?"
"Those ascetics and brahmins, monk, who do not understand as it
really is: This is suffering. This is the origin of suffering. This is the
362 In the Buddha's Words
cessation of suffering. This is the way leading to the cessation of suf-
fering'—they delight in volitional formations that lead to birth, aging,
and death; they delight in volitional formations that lead to sorrow,
lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair. Delighting in such volitional
formations, they generate volitional formations that lead to birth,
aging, and death; they generate volitional formations that lead to sor-
row, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair. Having generated such
volitional formations, they tumble down the precipice of birth, aging,
and death; they tumble down the precipice of sorrow, lamentation,
pain, dejection, and despair. They are not freed from birth, aging, and
death; not freed from sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair;
not freed from suffering, I say.
"But, monk, those ascetics and brahmins who understand as it
really is: 'This is suffering' ... 'This is the way leading to the cessation
of suffering'—they do not delight in volitional formations that lead
to birth, aging, and death; they do not generate volitional formations
that lead to sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair. Not
delighting in such volitional formations, they do not generate voli-
tional formations that lead to birth, aging, and death; they do not
generate volitional formations that lead to sorrow, lamentation, pain,
dejection, and despair. Not having generated such volitional forma-
tions, they do not tumble down the precipice of birth, aging, and
death; they do not tumble down the precipice of sorrow, lamentation,
pain, dejection, and despair. They are freed from birth, aging, and
death; freed from sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair;
freed from suffering, I say.
"Therefore, monks, an exertion should be made to understand: 'This
is suffering.'... An exertion should be made to understand:*'This is the
way leading to the cessation of suffering.'"
(SN 56:42; V 448-50)
(f) Making the Breakthrough
"Monks, if anyone should speak thus: 'Without having made the
breakthrough to the noble truth of suffering as it really is, without hav-
ing made the breakthrough to the noble truth of the origin of suffering
as it really is, without having made the breakthrough to the noble truth
of the cessation of suffering as it really is, without having made the
Shining the Light of
breakthrough to the noble truth of the way leading to the cessation of
suffering as it really is, I will completely make an end to suffering'
this is impossible.
"Just as, monks, if someone should speak thus: 'Having made a bas-
ket of acacia leaves or of pine needles or of myrobalan leaves,
54
1 will
bring water or a palm fruit/ this would be impossible; so too, if any-
one should speak thus: 'Without having made the breakthrough to the
noble truth of suffering as it really is ... I will completely make an end
to suffering'—this is impossible.
"But, monks, if anyone should speak thus: 'Having made the break-
through to the noble truth of suffering as it really is, having made the
breakthrough to the noble truth of the origin of suffering as it really is,
having made the breakthrough to the noble truth of the cessation of
suffering as it really is, having made the breakthrough to the noble
truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering as it really is, I will
completely make an end to suffering'—this is possible.
"Just as, monks, if someone should speak thus: 'Having made a bas-
ket of lotus leaves or of kino leaves or of maluva leaves, I will bring
water or a palm fruit,' this would be possible; so too, if anyone should
speak thus: 'Having made the breakthrough to the noble truth of suf-
fering as it really is ... I will completely make an end to suffering'—this
is possible.
"Therefore, monks, an exertion should be made to understand: 'This
is suffering.'... An exertion should be made to understand: 'This is the
way leading to the cessation of suffering.'"
(SN 56:32; V 442-43)
(g) The Destruction of the Taints
"Monks, I say that the destruction of the taints is for one who knows
and sees, not for one who does not know and does not see. For one
who knows what, for one who sees what, does the destruction of the
taints come about? The destruction of the taints comes about for one
who knows and sees: 'This is suffering. This is the origin of suffering.
This is the cessation of suffering. This is the way leading to the cessa-
tion of suffering.' It is for one who knows thus, for one who sees thus,
that the destruction of the taints comes about.
"Therefore, monks, an exertion should be made to understand: 'This
364 In the Buddha's Words
is suffering.'... An exertion should be made to understand: 'This is the
way leading to the cessation of suffering.'"
(SN 56:25; V 434)
5. THE GOAL OF WISDOM
(1) What is Nibbana?
On one occasion the Venerable Sariputta was dwelling in Magadha at
Nalakagama. Then the wanderer Jambukhadaka
55
approached the Ven-
erable Sariputta and exchanged greetings with him. When they had
concluded their greetings and cordial talk, he sat down to one side and
said to the Venerable Sariputta:
"Friend Sariputta, it is said, 'Nibbana, Nibbana.' What now is
Nibbana?"
"The destruction of lust, the destruction of hatred, the destruction of
delusion: this, friend, is called Nibbana.
"But, friend, is there a path, is there a way for the realization of this
Nibbana?"
"There is a path, friend, there is a way for the realization of this
Nibbana."
"And what, friend, is that path, what is that way for the realization
of this Nibbana?"
"It is, friend, this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view, right
intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right
mindfulness, right concentration. This is the path, friend, this is the
way for the realization of this Nibbana."
"Excellent is the path, friend, excellent is the way for the realization
of this Nibbana. And it is enough, friend Sariputta, for diligence."
(SN 38:1; IV 251-52)
(2) Thirty-Three Synonyms for Nibbana
"Monks, I will teach you the unconditioned and the path leading to the
unconditioned. Listen ....
"And what, monks, is the unconditioned? The destruction of lust,
the destruction of hatred, the destruction of delusion: this is called the
unconditioned.
Shining the Light of
"And what, monks, is the path leading to the unconditioned? Mind-
fulness directed to the body: this is called the path leading to the
unconditioned.
"Monks, I will teach you the uninclined ... the taintless ... the truth
... the far shore ... the subtle ... the very difficult to see ... the unaging
... the stable ... the undisintegrating ... the unmanifest ... the unpro-
liferated
56
... the peaceful... the deathless ... the sublime ... the auspi-
cious ... the secure .... the destruction of craving ... the wonderful ...
the amazing ... the unailing ... the unailing state ... Nibbana ... the
unafflicted ... dispassion ... purity ... freedom ... nonattachment ...
the island ... the shelter ... the asylum ... the refuge ... the destination
and the path leading to the destination. Listen ....
"And what, monks, is the destination? The destruction of lust, the
destruction of hatred, the destruction of delusion: this is called the
destination.
"And what, monks, is the path leading to the destination? Mind-
fulness directed to the body: this is called the path leading to the
destination.
"Thus, monks, I have taught you the unconditioned ... the destina-
tion and the path leading to the destination. Whatever should be done,
monks, by a compassionate teacher out of compassion for his disci-
ples, desiring their welfare, that I have done for you. These are the
roots of trees, monks, these are empty huts. Meditate, monks, do not be
negligent, lest you regret it later. This is my instruction to you."
(SN 43:1-44, combined; IV 359-73)
(3) There Is That Base
Thus have I heard. At one time the Blessed One was dwelling at
Savatthi in Jeta's Grove, Anathapindika's Park. Now on that occasion
the Blessed One was instructing, rousing, inspiring, and gladdening
the monks with a Dhamma talk connected with Nibbana, and those
monks were receptive and attentive, concentrating their whole mind,
intent on listening to the Dhamma.
Then, on realizing its significance, the Blessed One on that occasion
uttered this inspired utterance:
"There is, monks, that base where there is neither earth, nor water,
nor heat, nor air; neither the base of the infinity of space, nor the base
366 In the Buddha's Words
of the infinity of consciousness, nor the base of nothingness, nor the
base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception; neither this world nor
another world; neither sun nor moon.
57
Here, monks, I say there is no
coming, no going, no standing still; no passing away and no being
reborn. It is not established, not moving, without support. Just this is
the end of suffering."
(Ud
8:1;
80)
(4) The Unborn
Thus have I heard. At one time the Blessed One was dwelling at
Savatthi in Jeta's Grove, Anathapindika's Park. Now on that occasion
the Blessed One was instructing ... the monks with a Dhamma talk
connected with Nibbana, and those monks were receptive ... intent on
listening to the Dhamma.
Then, on realizing its significance, the Blessed One on that occasion
uttered this inspired utterance:
"There is, monks, an unborn, unbecome, unmade, unconditioned.
If, monks, there were no unborn, unbecome, unmade, unconditioned,
no escape would be discerned from what is born, become, made, con-
ditioned. But because there is an unborn, unbecome, unmade, uncon-
ditioned, therefore an escape is discerned from what is born, become,
made, conditioned."
(Ud 8:3; 80-81)
(5) The Two Nibbana Elements
"There are, monks, these two Nibbana elements. What are the two?
The Nibbana element with residue remaining and the Nibbana ele-
ment without residue remaining.
"And what, monks, is the Nibbana element with residue remaining?
Here, a monk is an arahant, one whose taints are destroyed, who has
lived the holy life, done what had to be done, laid down the burden,
reached his own goal, utterly destroyed the fetters of existence, one
completely liberated through final knowledge. However, his five sense
faculties remain unimpaired, by which he still experiences what is
agreeable and disagreeable, still feels pleasure and pain. It is the
destruction of lust, hatred, and delusion in him that is called the
Nibbana element with residue remaining.
Shining the Light of
"And what, monks, is the Nibbana element without residue remain-
ing? Here, a monk is an arahant, ... one completely liberated through
final knowledge. For him, here in this very life, all that is felt, not being
delighted in, will become cool right here. That, monks, is called the
Nibbana element without residue remaining.
"These, monks, are the two Nibbana elements."
(It
44;
38)
(6) The Fire and the Ocean
15. [The wanderer Vacchagotta asked the Blessed One:] "Then does
Master Gotama hold any speculative view at all?"
"Vaccha, 'speculative view' is something that the Tathagata has put
away. For the Tathagata, Vaccha, has seen
58
this: 'Such is form, such its
origin, such its passing away; such is feeling, such its origin, such its
passing away; such is perception, such its origin, such its passing away;
such are volitional formations, such their origin, such their passing
away; such is consciousness, such its origin, such its passing away.'
Therefore, I say, with the destruction, fading away, cessation, giving
up, and relinquishing of all conceiving, all rumination, all I-making,
mine-making, and the underlying tendency to conceit, the Tathagata is
liberated through not clinging."
16. "When a monk's mind is liberated thus, Master Gotama, where
is he reborn [after death]?"
'"Is reborn' does not apply, Vaccha."
"Then he is not reborn, Master Gotama?"
"'Is not reborn' does not apply, Vaccha."
"Then he both is reborn and is not reborn, Master Gotama?"
'"Both is reborn and is not reborn' does not apply, Vaccha."
"Then he neither is reborn nor is not reborn, Master Gotama?"
"'Neither is reborn nor is not reborn' does not apply, Vaccha."
17. "When Master Gotama is asked these four questions, he replies:
"Ts reborn" does not apply, Vaccha; "is not reborn" does not apply,
Vaccha; "both is reborn and is not reborn" does not apply, Vaccha; "nei-
ther is reborn nor is not reborn" does not apply, Vaccha.' Here I have
fallen into bewilderment, Master Gotama, here I have fallen into con-
fusion, and the measure of confidence I had gained through previous
conversation with Master Gotama has now disappeared."
368 In the Buddha's Words
18. "It is enough to cause you bewilderment, Vaccha, enough to
cause you confusion. For this Dhamma, Vaccha, is profound, hard to
see and hard to understand, peaceful and sublime, unattainable by
mere reasoning, subtle, to be experienced by the wise. It is hard for
you to understand it when you hold another view, accept another
teaching, approve of another teaching, pursue a different training, and
follow a different teacher. So I shall question you about this in return,
Vaccha. Answer as you choose.
19. "What do you think, Vaccha? Suppose a fire were burning before
you. Would you know: 'This fire is burning before me'?"
"I would, Master Gotama."
"If someone were to ask you, Vaccha: 'What does this fire burning
before you burn in dependence on?'—being asked thus, what would
you answer?"
"Being asked thus, Master Gotama, I would answer: 'This fire burn-
ing before me burns in dependence on grass and sticks.'"
"If that fire before you were to be extinguished, would you know:
'This fire before me has been extinguished'?"
"I would, Master Gotama."
"If someone were to ask you, Vaccha: 'When that fire before you was
extinguished, to which direction did it go: to the east, the west, the
north, or the south?'—being asked thus, what would you answer?"
"That does not apply, Master Gotama. The fire burned in depend-
ence on its fuel of grass and sticks. When that is used up, if it does not
get any more fuel, being without fuel, it is reckoned as extinguished."
20. "So too, Vaccha, the Tathagata has abandoned that form by which
one describing the Tathagata might describe him; he has cut it off at the
root, made it like a palm stump, done away with it so that it is no
longer subject to future arising. Liberated from reckoning in terms of
form, the Tathagata is deep, immeasurable, hard to fathom like the
ocean. 'Is reborn' does not apply; 'is not reborn' does not apply; 'both
is reborn and is not reborn' does not apply; 'neither is reborn nor is
not reborn' does not apply. The Tathagata has abandoned that feeling
by which one describing the Tathagata might describe him ... has aban-
doned that perception by which one describing the Tathagata might
describe him ... has abandoned those volitional formations by which
one describing the Tathagata might describe him ... has abandoned
that consciousness by which one describing the Tathagata might
Shining the Light of Wisdom 36y
describe him; he has cut it off at the root, made it like a palm stump,
done away with it so that it is no longer subject to future arising. Lib-
erated from reckoning in terms of consciousness, the Tathagata is deep,
immeasurable, hard to fathom like the ocean. 'Is reborn' does not
apply; 'is not reborn' does not apply; 'both is reborn and is not reborn'
does not apply; 'neither is reborn nor is not reborn' does not apply."
(from MN 72: Aggivacchagotta Sutta; 1486-88)
X. The Planes of Realization
A£/''<
ft:.,-
1
'
INTRODUCTION
The cultivation of wisdom, as we have seen, aims at the realization of
Nibbana. The Nikayas stipulate a fixed series of stages through which
a person passes on the way toward the attainment of Nibbana. In pass-
ing through these stages one evolves from an "uninstructed
worldling," blind to the truths of the Dhamma, into an arahant, a lib-
erated one, who has attained full comprehension of the Four Noble
Truths and realized Nibbana in this present life. I have already referred
to several of these stages in the earlier chapters of this book. In the
present chapter we will explore them in a more systematic manner.
On entering the irreversible path to the attainment of Nibbana, one
becomes a noble person (ariyapuggala), the word "noble" (ariya) here
denoting spiritual nobility. There are four major types of noble per-
sons. Each stage is divided into two phases: the path (magga) and its
fruition (phala).
1
In the path phase, one is said to be practicing for the
attainment of a particular fruition, which one is bound to realize within
that same life; in the resultant phase, one is said to be established in
that fruition. Thus the four major types of noble persons actually com-
prise four pairs or eight types of noble individuals. As enumerated in
Text X,1(U/ these are: (1) one practicing for the realization of the fruit
of stream-entry, (2) the stream-enterer, (3) one practicing for the realiza-
tion of the fruit of once-returning, (4) the once-returner, (5) one practic-
ing for the realization of the fruit of nonreturning, (6) the nonreturner,
(7) one practicing for arahantship, (8) the arahant. Text X,l(2) grades
these eight according to the relative strength of their spiritual facul-
ties, so that those at each subsequent stage possess stronger faculties
than those at the preceding stage. The first seven persons are collec-
tively known as sekhas, trainees or disciples in the higher training; the
arahant is called the asekha, the one beyond training.
The four main stages themselves are defined in two ways: (1) by way
of the defilements eradicated by the path leading to the corresponding
fruit; and (2) by way of the destiny after death that awaits one who
has realized that particular fruit. Text X,l(3) gives standard definitions
373
374 In the Buddha's Words
of the four types that mention both the defilements abandoned and
their future destiny.
The Nikayas group the defilements abandoned into a set of ten fet-
ters (samyojana). The stream-enterer abandons the first three fetters:
identity view (sakkayaditthi), that is, the view of a truly existent self either
as identical with the five aggregates or as existing in some relation to
them; doubt (vicikiccha) about the Buddha, the Dhamma, the Sahgha,
and the training; and the wrong grasp of rules and observances (silabbata-
paramasa), the belief that mere external observances, particularly reli-
gious rituals and ascetic practices, can lead to liberation. The
stream-enterer is assured of attaining full enlightenment in at most
seven more existences, which will all take place either in the human
realm or the heavenly worlds. The stream-enterer will never undergo
an eighth existence and is forever freed from rebirth in the three lower
realms—the hells, the realm of afflicted spirits, and the animal realm.
The once-returner (sakadagami) does not eradicate any new fetters.
He or she has eliminated the three fetters that the stream-enterer has
destroyed and additionally attenuates the three unwholesome roots
lust, hatred, and delusion—so that they do not arise often and, when
they do arise, do not become obsessive.
2
As the name implies, the once-
returner will come back to this world only one more time and then
make an end to suffering.
The nonreturner (anagami) eradicates the five 'Tower fetters." That is,
in addition to the three fetters eliminated by the stream-enterer, the
nonreturner eradicates two additional fetters, sensual lust and ill will.
Because nonreturners have eradicated sensual lust, they have no ties
binding them to the sensual realm of existence. They thus take birth in
the form realm (rupadhatu), generally in one of five planes called the
"pure abodes" (suddhavasa) reserved exclusively for the rebirth of non-
returners. They attain final Nibbana there, without ever returning to
the sensual realm.
The nonreturner, however, is still bound by the five "higher fetters":
desire for existence in the form realm, desire for existence in the form-
less realm, conceit, restlessness, and ignorance. Those who cut off the
five higher fetters have no more ties binding them to conditioned exis-
tence. These are the arahants, who have destroyed all defilements and
are "completely liberated through final knowledge."
The Planes of Realization 375
The Four Classes of Noble Disciples
By Way of Fetters Eliminated and Types of Rebirth Remaining
Class of disciple Fetters newly eliminated
Remaining types of rebirth
stream-enterer
identity view, doubt,
wrong grasp of rules
and observances
at most seven more births
among humans and devas
once-returner
none, but weakens lust,
hatred, and delusion
one more birth in the sense-
sphere realm
nonreturner
sensual lust and ill will
spontaneous birth in the
form realm
arahant
desire for existence in
form realm, desire for
formless existence,
conceit, restlessness,
ignorance
none
Besides the four main classes of noble persons, the Nikayas some-
times mention a pair ranked just below the stream-enterer—see Text
X,l(3). These two—called the Dhamma-follower (dhammanusari) and
the faith-follower (saddhanusari)—are actually two types belonging to
the eighth category of noble disciples, the person practicing for the
realization of the fruit of stream-entry. The Nikayas include this pair to
show that those on the way to stream-entry can be distinguished into
two classes by way of their dominant faculty. The Dhamma-follower is
one for whom wisdom is dominant, the faith-follower one for whom
faith is dominant. It may be significant that at this stage prior to the
first fruition, it is only faith and wisdom and not the other three facul-
ties—energy, mindfulness, and concentration—that serve to distin-
guish disciples into different types.
3
The explanation of the classes of noble disciples found in the above
text, an extract from the Alagaddupama Sutta (MN 22), may convey
the impression that all those who attain these stages are monks. This,
however, is by no means the case. The Alagaddupama extract is
worded in this way only because it is addressed to monks. Text X,l(4)
corrects this impression and provides a clearer picture of how the
classes of noble disciples are distributed among the groups of the
376 In the Buddha's Words
Buddha's followers. As an abiding state, arahantship is reserved for
monks and nuns. This does not mean that only monks and nuns can
attain arahantship; the suttas and commentaries do record a few cases
of lay disciples attaining the final goal. However, such disciples either
attain arahantship on the brink of death or enter the monastic order
very soon after their attainment. They do not continue to dwell at home
as arahant householders, for dwelling at home is incompatible with
the state of one who has severed all craving.
In contrast, nonreturners can continue to dwell as householders.
While they continue to live as lay disciples, they have eradicated sen-
sual desire and thus necessarily observe celibacy. They are described
as "lay followers ... clothed in white, leading lives of celibacy, who, with
the destruction of the five lower fetters, will be reborn spontaneously
[in the pure abodes] and there attain final Nibbana without ever
returning from that world." Though the suttas do not explicitly say
this, it is reasonable to suppose that those disciples practicing to attain
the fruit of nonreturning also observe full-time celibacy. Lay stream-
enterers and once-returners, however, are not necessarily celibate. In
the sutta the Buddha describes them as "lay followers ... clothed in
white, enjoying sensual pleasures, who carry out my instruction,
respond to my advice, have gone beyond doubt, become free from
perplexity, gained intrepidity, and become independent of others in
the Teacher's dispensation." Thus, while some stream-enterers and
once-returners may observe celibacy, this is by no means typical of
these two classes.
The Nikayas occasionally employ another scheme for classifying
noble disciples, one that makes the dominant faculty rather than the
level of attainment alone the basis for differentiation. The main source
for this scheme is a passage in the Kitagiri Sutta included here as Text
X,l(5). This method of classification divides arahants into two cate-
gories: those liberated in both ways (ubhatobhagavimutta) and those lib-
erated by wisdom (pannavimutta). The former are called "liberated in
both ways" because they are liberated from form by their mastery over
the formless meditations and liberated from all defilements by their
attainment of arahantship. Those arahants "liberated by wisdom" have
not mastered the formless attainments but have gained the final fruit
by the power of their wisdom combined with degrees of concentra-
tion lower than the formless states.
The Planes of Realization 377
Those who have attained any of the lower stages, from stream-entry
up to and including the path to arahantship, are divided into three cat-
egories. The "body-witness" (kayasakkhi) is one at any of these stages
who has mastered the formless attainments; the "one attained-to-view"
(ditthippatta), one at any of these stages who lacks the formless attain-
ments and gives prominence to wisdom; and the "one liberated by
faith" (saddhavimutta), one at any of these stages who lacks the form-
less attainments and gives prominence to faith. The last two persons in
this typology are the Dhamma-follower and the faith-follower
explained above.
It should be noted that this scheme does not mention a person at the
path of stream-entry who possesses the formless attainments. This
should not be taken to mean that such a type is in principle excluded
but only that such a type was considered irrelevant for purposes of
classification. It seems that at this preparatory stage, the allotment of
a separate category to one with outstanding skills in concentration was
deemed unnecessary.
In the selection of texts, I next take up the main types for individual
consideration. I begin with the stream-enterer, but first some prelimi-
nary comments are necessary. In the Nikayas, the great majority of
human beings are called "uninstructed worldlings" (assutava puthuj-
jana). Uninstructed worldlings have no regard for the Buddha and his
teaching, no understanding of the Dhamma or dedication to the prac-
tice. The purpose of the Buddha's path is to lead uninstructed
worldlings to the attainment of the Deathless, and the stages of realiza-
tion are the steps toward the completion of this process. The process of
transformation generally begins when one encounters the Buddha's
teaching and gains confidence in the Buddha as the Enlightened One.
One must then acquire a clear understanding of the Dhamma, under-
take the precepts, and enter upon the systematic practice of the path.
In the suttas such a person is called a noble disciple (ariyasavaka) in a
broad sense of the term, not necessarily in the narrow, technical sense
of one who has already reached the paths and fruits.
Later tradition calls a person who has faith in the Dhamma and
aspires to reach the state of stream-entry a virtuous worldling
(kalyanaputhujjana). To reach the attainment of stream-entry, the aspir-
ing disciple should cultivate the "four factors leading to stream-entry."
As Text X,2(l) explains, these are: associating with wise and virtuous
378 In the Buddha's Words
spiritual guides; listening to the true Dhamma; attending carefully to
things (for example, by way of gratification, danger, and escape); and
practicing in accordance with the Dhamma (by undertaking the three-
fold training in moral discipline, concentration, and wisdom). The
peak of the training undertaken by the aspiring disciple is the devel-
opment of insight: the thorough contemplation of the aggregates, sense
bases, and elements as impermanent, bound up with suffering, and
devoid of a substantial self. At a certain point, when insight reaches its
peak, the disciple's understanding will undergo a major transition,
which marks the entry upon "the fixed course of Tightness," the true
Noble Eightfold Path that leads irreversibly to Nibbana. As Text X,2(2)
puts it, such a disciple has risen up from the plane of worldlings and
reached the plane of the noble ones. Though not yet a stream-enterer,
a person at this stage cannot pass away without having realized the
fruit of stream-entry.
As we have already seen, among disciples who attain the path there
is a distinction between those who arrive through faith, called faith-
followers, and those who arrive through wisdom, called Dhamma-
followers. But while faith-followers and Dhamma-followers differ by
way of their dominant faculty, they are alike in that both must further
cultivate the path they have entered. Once they know and see the
essence of the Dhamma—when they "obtain the vision of the
Dhamma" and "make the breakthrough to the Dhamma"—they
become stream-enterers, bound to reach full enlightenment and attain
final Nibbana in a maximum of seven more lives; see Text X,2(3).
Stream-enterers eradicate the first three fetters and acquire the eight
factors of the Noble Eightfold Path. They also have "four factors of
stream-entry": confirmed confidence in the Buddha, the Dhamma,
and Saiigha, and "the moral virtues dear to the noble ones," that is,
firm adherence to the five precepts; see Texts X,2(4)-(5).
Having seen the truth of the Dhamma, the stream-enterer faces the
challenge of cultivating this vision in order to eliminate the remaining
defilements. The next major milestone, the attainment of the plane of
the once-returner, does not eliminate any defilements completely.
However, it does attenuate the three root defilements—lust, hatred,
and delusion—to a degree sufficient to ensure that the disciple will
return to "this world," the sense-sphere realm of existence, only one
more time and then make an end to suffering.
1 he Flanes of Realization 3/y
A disciple who attains either of the first two stages, stream-enterer
or once-returner, need not remain fixed there but can advance to the
two higher stages. Descriptions of attainment in the Nikayas suggest
that it is also possible for a virtuous worldling with extremely sharp
faculties to advance directly to the stage of nonreturner. The state of
nonreturner is always said to be attained simply through the destruc-
tion of the five lower fetters, the three fetters eradicated by the stream-
enterer along with sensual lust and ill will. From the Nikayas, it
appears that one with extremely sharp wisdom can achieve this stage
at a single stroke. The commentaries, however, explain that in such a
case the person actually passes through the first two paths and fruits
in very quick succession before reaching the third path and fruit.
According to Text X,3(l), to abandon the five lower fetters, a monk
first attains one of the four jhanas or one of the three lower formless
attainments; the constituent factors of the fourth formless attainment
are too subtle to serve as objects of insight. Directing his attention to the
factors constituting the jhana or formless attainment,
4
he subsumes
them under the five aggregates: as included in form (omitted in rela-
tion to the formless attainments), feeling, perception, volitional forma-
tions, and consciousness. Having done so, he contemplates these
factors, now classified into the five aggregates, as marked by the three
characteristics: impermanence, suffering, and nonself (expanded into
eleven headings). As contemplation advances, at a certain point his
mind turns away from all conditioned things and focuses upon the
deathless element, Nibbana. If he has sharp faculties and can relin-
quish all attachments on the spot, he attains arahantship, the destruc-
tion of the taints; but if he cannot yet give up all attachments, he attains
the state of nonreturning.
The Buddha recognized differences in the approaches individuals
take to achieving the final goal, and in Text X,3(2) he divides persons
into four categories with respect to its attainment. The four are
obtained through the permutations of two pairs. He first distinguishes
disciples on the basis of the strength of their spiritual faculties. Those
with strong faculties reach final Nibbana in this very life. Those with
relatively weak faculties attain final Nibbana in the next life, and thus
presumably expire as nonreturners. The other pair distinguishes disci-
ples by their mode of development. One class takes the "difficult"
approach, which uses meditation subjects that generate sharp wisdom
380 In the Buddha's Words
and lead directly to disenchantment and dispassion. The other class
takes the smoother and more pleasant route leading through the four
jhanas. These two types correspond roughly to those who give empha-
sis to insight and those who give emphasis to serenity.
A short sutta in the Sotapattisamyutta, Text X,3(3), relates the story
of Dighavu, a youth who took the difficult route emphasizing insight
to the stage of nonreturner. Dighavu was lying on his deathbed when
the Buddha came to him and asked him to train in the four factors of
stream-entry. Dighavu said that he was already endowed with these
factors, indicating thereby that he was a stream-enterer. The Buddha
then instructed him to develop "six things that partake of true knowl-
edge." He evidently heeded the Buddha's advice, for shortly after he
died the Buddha declared him to have expired as a nonreturner.
Though it is possible that Dighavu had already gained the jhanas and
thus did not need to be instructed in their practice, it is also possible
that he attained the stage of nonreturner entirely through the power of
the deep insight arisen from these six contemplations.
Text X,3(4) makes further distinctions among those who attain ara-
hantship and the stage of nonreturner. Such suttas point to the great
variety that can exist even among those at the same spiritual level. It
is because he was able to make such distinctions that the Buddha was
said to possess perfect understanding of the diversity in the faculties
of sentient beings.
Since nonreturners have eradicated the five lower fetters, they are no
longer bound to the sensual realm of existence. However, they are still
not entirely liberated from the cycle of rebirths but are still bound by
the five higher fetters: desire for existence in the form realm, desire for
existence in the formless realm, the conceit "I am," subtle restlessness,
and ignorance. The conceit "I am" (asmimana) differs from identity
view, the view of self (sakkayaditthi), to which it is partly akin. The
view of self affirms an enduring self existing in relation to the five
aggregates, either as identical with them, or as their inner core, or as
their owner and master. But the conceit "I am" lacks a clear conceptual
content. It lurks at the base of the mind as a vague, shapeless, but
imperious sense of the "I" as a concrete reality. Though the view of self
is already eliminated at the stage of stream-entry, the conceit "I am"
persists in noble disciples even up to the stage of nonreturner. This is
the point of the incisive Khemaka Sutta—Text X,4(l)—with its two
i ne nuritb uj i\cui^unuri ^>V±
beautiful similes of the flower's scent and the laundered cloth. The
noble disciples differ from ordinary people in that they do not buy into
the conceit "I am." They recognize the conceit "I am" as a mere fig-
ment of the imagination, a false notion that does not point to a self, to
a truly existent "I." But they have not completely overcome it.
The subtle attachment and the residual sense of "I am" that persist in
the nonreturner both stem from ignorance. To reach the end of the path,
the nonreturner must obliterate the remaining segment of ignorance
and dispel all traces of craving and conceit. The critical point when
ignorance, craving, and conceit are eradicated marks the transition from
the stage of nonreturner to arahantship. The difference between the two
can be a subtle one, and therefore standards for distinguishing them
are necessary. In Text X,4(2) the Buddha proposes several criteria by
which a trainee and an arahant can determine their respective stand-
ings. One of particular interest concerns their relationship to the five
spiritual faculties: faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration, and wis-
dom. The trainee sees with wisdom the goal in which the faculties cul-
minate—namely, Nibbana—but cannot dwell in it. The arahant sees
with wisdom the supreme goal and can also dwell in that goal.
The texts that follow offer different perspectives on the arahant. Text
X,4(3) characterizes the arahant with a series of metaphors, elucidated
in the same passage. Text X,4(4) enumerates nine things that an arahant
cannot do. In Text X,4(5), the Venerable Sariputta describes the ara-
hant's imperturbability in the face of powerful sense objects, and in
Text X,4(6) he enumerates the ten powers of an arahant. Text X,4(7), an
excerpt from the Dhatuvibhahga Sutta, begins as an account of the
attainment of arahantship through the contemplation of the elements;
the relevant passage was included in the previous chapter as Text
IX,4(3)(c). The exposition then turns to the "four foundations" (cattaro
adhitthana) of the arahant, here spoken of as "the sage at peace" (muni
santo). Text X,4(8), the last in this section, is a poem extolling the ara-
hant's distinguished qualities.
The first and foremost of the arahants is the Buddha himself, to
whom the last section of this chapter is devoted. The section is titled
"The Tathagata," the word the Buddha used when referring to himself
in his archetypal role as the discoverer and bringer of liberating truth.
The word can be resolved in two ways: taken as tatha agata, "Thus
Come," it implies that the Buddha has come in accordance with an
382 In the Buddha's Words
established pattern (which the commentaries interpret to mean the ful-
fillment of the ten spiritual perfections—the paramis—and the thirty-
seven aids to enlightenment); taken as tatha gata, "Thus Gone," it
implies that he has gone in accordance with an established pattern
(which the commentaries interpret to mean that he has gone to Nibbana
by the complete practice of serenity, insight, the paths, and the fruits).
Later forms of Buddhism draw extreme distinctions between
Buddhas and arahants, but in the Nikayas this distinction is not as
sharp as one might expect if one takes later texts as the benchmark of
interpretation. On the one hand, the Buddha is an arahant, as is evident
from the standard verse of homage to the Blessed One (iti pi so bhagava
araham samma sambuddho ...); on the other, arahants are buddha, in the
sense that they have attained full enlightenment, sambodhi, by awaken-
ing to the same truths that the Buddha himself realized. The proper
distinction, then, is that between a samma sambuddha or Perfectly
Enlightened Buddha, and an arahant who has attained enlightenment
and liberation as a disciple (savaka) of a Perfectly Enlightened Buddha.
However, to avoid such complex locutions, we will resort to the com-
mon practice of phrasing the distinction as that between a Buddha and
an arahant.
What then is the relationship between the two? Is the difference
between them primarily one of temporal sequence, with perhaps a few
additional capacities specific to a Perfectly Enlightened Buddha? Or is
the difference between them so vast that they should be considered
distinct types? The Nikayas display an interesting, even tantalizing,
ambivalence on this question, as the texts included here illustrate. Text
X,5(l) raises the question about the difference between "the Tathagata,
the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One" and "a monk liberated by
wisdom"; apparently the expression bhikkhu pannavimutta is used here
in a sense applicable to any arahant disciple rather than solely to one
who lacks the formless attainments (that is, in an inclusive sense, not
as a wisdom-liberated arahant contrasted with a both-ways liberated
arahant). The answer the text gives expresses the difference in terms of
role and temporal priority. A Buddha has the function of discovering
and expounding the path, and he also possesses a unique familiarity
with the intricacies of the path not shared by his disciples. His disciples
follow the path he reveals and attain enlightenment afterward, under
his guidance.
i ne rianes uj i\tuu£iuiun
The polemical literature of later Buddhism sometimes depicts the
Buddha as motivated by great compassion and his arahant disciples as
cool and aloof, indifferent to the plight of their fellow beings. As if to
forestall this criticism, Text X,5(2) states that not only the Buddha but
arahants as well as learned and virtuous disciples still in training arise
for the welfare of many people, live their lives out of compassion for
the world, and teach the Dhamma for the good, well-being, and hap-
piness of their fellow beings, devas as well as humans. Thus, if this
text is taken as authoritative, it cannot be claimed that compassion and
altruistic concern are qualities that distinguish Buddhas from arahants.
Yet Text X,5(3) gives us another perspective on this question. Here,
the Buddha challenges the Venerable Sariputta's "bellowing utterance"
by asking him whether he fully knows the moral discipline, qualities
(perhaps concentration), wisdom, meditative dwellings, and liberation
of the Buddhas of the past, present, and future. To this the great disci-
ple can only answer in the negative. But Sariputta declares that he
knows that all the Buddhas of the three periods of time attain perfect
enlightenment by abandoning the five hindrances, by establishing
their minds in the four establishments of mindfulness, and by devel-
oping correctly the seven factors of enlightenment.
These, however, are aspects of the path that Buddhas have fulfilled
in common with arahant disciples. Beyond this, the Buddhas possess
certain qualities that elevate them above even the foremost of the ara-
hants. From the Nikayas, their superiority seems to rest on two main
pillars: first, their being is essentially "for others" in a way that the
most altruistic of the arahant disciples can only emulate but never
equal; and second, their knowledges and spiritual powers are much
greater than those of the arahant disciples.
The Buddha states that even monks fully liberated in mind, who
possess "unsurpassable vision, practice, and liberation," venerate the
Tathagata, because his attainment of enlightenment helps others to
attain enlightenment, his deliverance helps others gain deliverance,
his realization of Nibbana enables others to realize Nibbana (MN
35.26; 1235). In Text X,5(4), we encounter two sets of qualities consid-
ered special endowments of a Buddha, enabling him to "roar his
lion's roar in the assemblies" and set rolling the wheel of Dhamma.
These are the ten Tathagata's powers and the four grounds of self-
confidence. Though several of these powers are shared by disciples,
384 In the Buddha's Words
in their totality these two sets are distinctive of a Buddha and equip
him to guide and instruct beings in accordance with their individual
aptitudes and dispositions. The four grounds of self-confidence confer
upon the Buddha a boldness of authority, a magnitude of mission, that
only the founder of a religion can exercise. Text X,5(5) compares the
Tathagata to the sun and moon, for his appearance in the world is the
manifestation of great light and dispels the darkness of ignorance. Text
X,5(6) compares him to a man who rescues a herd of deer from
calamity, thus portraying him as the great benefactor of humanity.
With Text X,5(7) we return to the metaphor of the lion's roar, intro-
duced earlier, with a lengthy simile that compares the Buddha's procla-
mation of universal impermanence to the roar of a lion when he
emerges from his den. Like the closing passage of the First Sermon (see
Text 11,5), this text draws our attention to the cosmic scope of the
Buddha's mission. His message extends not only to human beings, but
reaches up to the high heavenly realms, shaking the delusions of the
deities.
Finally, Text X,5(8) offers us a series of brief explanations why the
Buddha is called the Tathagata. He is called the Tathagata because he
has fully awakened to the nature of the world, its origin, its cessation,
and the way to its cessation; because he has fully comprehended all
phenomena within the world, whether seen, heard, sensed, or cog-
nized; because his speech is invariably true; because he acts in con-
formity with his words; and because he wields supreme mastery
within the world. The text ends with an inspired poem, probably
attached by the compilers of the canon, which celebrates the Buddha
as the supreme refuge for the world.
The personal devotion toward the Tathagata expressed by both the
prose text and the poem introduces us to the warm current of religious
feeling that runs through Early Buddhism, always present just beneath
its cool and composed exterior. This religious dimension makes the
Dhamma more than just a philosophy or an ethical system or a body
of meditative techniques. Animating it from within, drawing its fol-
lowers upward and onward, it makes the Dhamma a complete spiri-
tual path—a path rooted in faith in a particular person who is at once
the supreme teacher of liberating truth and the foremost example of the
truth he teaches.
X. THE PLANES OF REALIZATION
1. THE FIELD OF MERIT FOR THE WORLD
(1) Eight Persons Worthy of Gifts
"Monks, these eight persons are worthy of gifts, worthy of hospitality,
worthy of offerings, worthy of reverential salutations, the unsurpassed
field of merit for the world. What eight?
"The stream-enterer, the one practicing for the realization of the fruit
of stream-entry; the once-returner, the one practicing for the realization
of the fruit of once-returning; the nonreturner, the one practicing for the
realization of the fruit of the nonreturning; the arahant, the one prac-
ticing for arahantship.
"Monks, these eight persons are worthy of gifts, worthy of hospital-
ity, worthy of offerings, worthy of reverential salutations, the unsur-
passed field of merit for the world."
(AN 8:59; IV 292)
(2) Differentiation by Faculties
"Monks, there are these five faculties. What five? The faculty of faith,
the faculty of energy, the faculty of mindfulness, the faculty of concen-
tration, the faculty of wisdom. These are the five faculties.
"One who has completed and fulfilled these five faculties is an ara-
hant. If they are weaker than that, one is practicing for the realization
of the fruit of arahantship; if still weaker, one is a nonreturner; if still
weaker, one is practicing for the realization of the fruit of nonreturning;
if still weaker, one is a once-returner; if still weaker, one is practicing
for the realization of the fruit of once-returning; if still weaker, one is a
stream-enterer; if still weaker, one is practicing for the realization of
the fruit of stream-entry.
"But, monks, I say that one in whom these five faculties are completely
and totally absent is 'an outsider, one standing amid the worldlings.'"
(SN 48:18; V 202)
385
386 In the Buddha's Words
(3) In the Dhamma Well Expounded
42. "Monks, the Dhamma well expounded by me thus is clear, open,
evident, and free of patchwork. In the Dhamma well expounded by me
thus, which is clear, open, evident, and free of patchwork, those monks
who are arahants with taints destroyed—who have lived the spiritual
life, done what had to be done, laid down the burden, reached their
own goal, utterly destroyed the fetters of existence, and are completely
liberated through final knowledge—have no round for manifestation.
5
43. "Monks, the Dhamma well expounded by me thus is clear ... free
of patchwork. In the Dhamma well expounded by me thus, those
monks who have abandoned the five lower fetters are all due to be
reborn spontaneously [in the pure abodes] and there attain final
Nibbana, without ever returning from that world.
6
44. "Monks, the Dhamma well expounded by me thus is clear ... free
of patchwork. In the Dhamma well expounded by me thus, those
monks who have abandoned three fetters and attenuated lust, hate,
and delusion are all once-returners, returning once to this world to
make an end of suffering.
45. "Monks, the Dhamma well expounded by me thus is clear ... free
of patchwork. In the Dhamma well expounded by me thus, those
monks who have abandoned three fetters are all stream-enterers, no
longer bound to the lower world, fixed in destiny, with enlightenment
as their destination.
7
46. "Monks, the Dhamma well expounded by me thus is clear ... free
of patchwork. In the Dhamma well expounded by me thus, those
monks who are Dhamma-followers or faith-followers all have enlight-
enment as their destination.
8
47. "Monks, the Dhamma well expounded by me thus is clear, open,
evident, and free of patchwork. In the Dhamma well expounded by
me thus, those who have sufficient faith in me, sufficient love for me,
all have heaven as their destination."
9
(from MN 22: Alagaddupama Sutta; 1140-42)
(4) The Completeness of the Teaching
6. "When a monk has abandoned craving, cut it off at the root, made it
like a palm stump, done away with it so that it is no longer subject to
future arising, that monk is an arahant with taints destroyed, one who
has lived the spiritual life, done what had to be done, laid down the
burden, reached his own goal, utterly destroyed the fetters of existence,
and is completely liberated through final knowledge."
7. "Apart from Master Gotama, is there any monk, Master Gotama's
disciple, who by realizing it for himself with direct knowledge, in this
present life enters upon and dwells in the liberation of mind, liberation
by wisdom, that is taintless with the destruction of the taints?"
10
"There are, Vaccha, not only one hundred, or two or three or four or
five hundred, but far more monks, my disciples, who by realizing it for
themselves with direct knowledge, in this present life enter upon and
dwell in the liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom, that is taintless
with the destruction of the taints."
8. "Apart from Master Gotama and the monks, is there any nun,
Master Gotama's disciple, who by realizing it for herself with direct
knowledge, in this present life enters upon and dwells in the liberation
of mind, liberation by wisdom, that is taintless with the destruction of
the taints?"
"There are not only one hundred ... or five hundred, but far more
nuns, my disciples, who by realizing it for themselves with direct
knowledge, in this present life enter upon and dwell in the liberation
of mind, liberation by wisdom, that is taintless with the destruction of
the taints."
9. "Apart from Master Gotama and the monks and nuns, is there
any male lay follower, Master Gotama's disciple, clothed in white lead-
ing a life of celibacy who, with the destruction of the five lower fet-
ters, will be reborn spontaneously [in the pure abodes] and there attain
final Nibbana without ever returning from that world?"
11
"There are not only one hundred ... or five hundred, but far more
male lay followers, my disciples, clothed in white leading lives of
celibacy who, with the destruction of the five lower fetters, will be
reborn spontaneously [in the pure abodes] and there attain final
Nibbana without ever returning from that world."
10. "Apart from Master Gotama, the monks and nuns, and the male
lay followers clothed in white leading lives of celibacy, is there any
male lay follower, Master Gotama's disciple, clothed in white enjoy-
ing sensual pleasures, who carries out his instruction, responds to his
advice, has gone beyond doubt, become free from perplexity, gained
388 In the Buddha's Words
intrepidity, and become independent of others in the Teacher's
dispensation?"
12
"There are not only one hundred ... or five hundred, but far more
male lay followers, my disciples, clothed in white enjoying sensual
pleasures, who carry out my instruction, respond to my advice, have
gone beyond doubt, become free from perplexity, gained intrepidity,
and become independent of others in the Teacher's dispensation."
11. "Apart
from Master Gotama, the monks and nuns, and the male
lay followers clothed in white, both those leading lives of celibacy and
those enjoying sensual pleasures, is there any female lay follower, Mas-
ter Gotama's disciple, clothed in white leading a life of celibacy who,
with the destruction of the five lower fetters, will be reborn sponta-
neously [in the pure abodes] and there attain final Nibbana without
ever returning from that world?"
"There are not only one hundred ... or five hundred, but far more
female lay followers, my disciples, clothed in white leading lives of
celibacy who, with the destruction of the five lower fetters, will be
reborn spontaneously [in the pure abodes] and there attain final
Nibbana without ever returning from that world."
12. "Apart from Master Gotama, the monks and nuns, and the male
lay followers clothed in white, both those leading lives of celibacy and
those enjoying sensual pleasures, and the female lay followers clothed
in white leading lives of celibacy, is there any one female lay follower,
Master Gotama's disciple, clothed in white enjoying sensual pleasures,
who carries out his instruction, responds to his advice, has gone
beyond doubt, become free from perplexity, gained intrepidity, and
become independent of others in the Teacher's dispensation?"
"There are not only one hundred ... or five hundred, but far more
female lay followers, my disciples, clothed in white enjoying sensual
pleasures, who carry out my instruction, respond to my advice, have
gone beyond doubt, become free of perplexity, gained intrepidity, and
become independent of others in the Teacher's dispensation."
13. "Master Gotama, if only Master Gotama were accomplished in
this Dhamma, but no monks were accomplished, then this spiritual
life would be deficient in that respect; but because Master Gotama
and monks are accomplished in this Dhamma, this spiritual life is thus
complete in that respect. If only Master Gotama and monks were
accomplished in this Dhamma, but no nuns were accomplished, then
this spiritual life would be deficient in that respect; but because Mas-
ter Gotama, monks, and nuns are accomplished in this Dhamma, this
spiritual life is thus complete in that respect. If only Master Gotama,
monks, and nuns were accomplished in this Dhamma, but no male
lay followers clothed in white leading lives of celibacy were accom-
plished, then this spiritual life would be deficient in that respect; but
because Master Gotama, monks and nuns, and male lay followers
clothed in white leading lives of celibacy are accomplished in this
Dhamma, this spiritual life is thus complete in that respect. If only
Master Gotama, monks and nuns, and male lay followers clothed in
white leading lives of celibacy were accomplished in this Dhamma,
but no male lay followers clothed in white enjoying sensual pleasures
were accomplished, then this spiritual life would be deficient in that
respect; but because Master Gotama, monks and nuns, and male lay
followers clothed in white, both those leading lives of celibacy and
those enjoying sensual pleasures, are accomplished in this Dhamma,
this spiritual life is thus complete in that respect. If only Master
Gotama, monks and nuns, and male lay followers clothed in white ...
were accomplished in this Dhamma, but no female lay followers
clothed in white leading lives of celibacy were accomplished, then this
spiritual life would be deficient in that respect; but because Master
Gotama, monks and nuns, male lay followers clothed in white ... and
female lay followers clothed in white leading lives of celibacy are
accomplished in this Dhamma, this spiritual life is thus complete in
that respect. If only Master Gotama, monks and nuns, male lay follow-
ers clothed in white ... and female lay followers clothed in white lead-
ing lives of celibacy were accomplished in this Dhamma, but no
female lay followers clothed in white enjoying sensual pleasures were
accomplished, then this spiritual life would be deficient in that
respect; but because Master Gotama, monks and nuns, male lay fol-
lowers clothed in white, both those leading lives of celibacy and those
enjoying sensual pleasures, and female lay followers clothed in white,
both those leading lives of celibacy and those enjoying sensual pleas-
ures, are accomplished in this Dhamma, this spiritual life is thus com-
plete in that respect.
14. "Just as the river Ganges inclines toward the sea, slopes toward
the sea, flows toward the sea, and reaches the sea, so too Master
Gotama's assembly with its homeless ones and its householders
390 In the Buddha's Words
inclines toward Nibbana, slopes toward Nibbana, flows toward
Nibbana, and reaches Nibbana."
(from MN 73: Mahavacchagotta Sutta; 1490-93)
(5) Seven Kinds of Noble Persons
11. "Monks, I do not say of all monks that they still have work to do
with diligence; nor do I say of all monks that they have no more work
to do with diligence.
12. "I do not say of those monks who are arahants with taints
destroyed, who have lived the spiritual life, done what had to be done,
laid down the burden, reached their own goal, utterly destroyed the
fetters of existence, and are completely liberated through final knowl-
edge, that they still have work to do with diligence. Why is that? They
have done their work with diligence; they are no more capable of being
negligent.
13. "I say of those monks who are trainees, whose minds have not
yet reached the goal, and who are still aspiring to the unsurpassed
security from bondage, that they still have work to do with diligence.
Why is that? Because when those venerable ones make use of suitable
lodgings and associate with good friends and nurture their spiritual
faculties, they may, by realizing it for themselves with direct knowl-
edge, in this present life enter upon and dwell in that supreme goal of
the spiritual life for the sake of which clansmen rightly go forth from
the home life into homelessness. Seeing this fruit of diligence for these
monks, I say that they still have work to do with diligence.
14. "Monks, there are seven kinds of persons to be found existing
in the world. What seven? They are: one liberated-in-both ways,
one liberated-by-wisdom, a body-witness, one attained-to-view, one
liberated-by-faith, a Dhamma-follower, and a faith-follower.
15. "What kind of person is one liberated-in-both-ways? Here some
person contacts with the body and dwells in those liberations that are
peaceful and formless, transcending forms, and his taints are destroyed
by his seeing with wisdom. This kind of person is called one liberated-
in-both-ways.
13
I do not say of such a monk that he still has work to do
with diligence. Why is that? He has done his work with diligence; he
is no more capable of being negligent.
16. "What kind of person is one liberated-by-wisdom? Here some
person does not contact with the body and dwell in those liberations
that are peaceful and formless, transcending forms, but his taints are
destroyed by his seeing with wisdom. This kind of person is called one
liberated-by-wisdom.
14
1 do not say of such a monk that he still has
work to do with diligence. Why is that? He has done his work with
diligence; he is no more capable of being negligent.
17. "What kind of person is a body-witness? Here some person con-
tacts with the body and dwells in those liberations that are peaceful
and formless, transcending forms, and some of his taints are
destroyed by his seeing with wisdom. This kind of person is called a
body-witness.
15
1 say of such a monk that he still has work to do with
diligence. Why is that? Because when that venerable one makes use of
suitable lodgings and associates with good friends and nurtures his
spiritual faculties, he may, by realizing it for himself with direct
knowledge, in this present life enter upon and dwell in that supreme
goal of the spiritual life for the sake of which clansmen rightly go forth
from the home life into homelessness. Seeing this fruit of diligence for
such a monk, I say that he still has work to do with diligence.
18. "What kind of person is one attained-to-view? Here some person
does not contact with the body and dwell in those liberations that are
peaceful and formless, transcending forms, but some of his taints are
destroyed by his seeing with wisdom, and he has reviewed and exam-
ined with wisdom the teachings proclaimed by the Tathagata. This
kind of person is called one attained-to-view.
16
1 say of such a monk
that he still has work to do with diligence. Why is that? Because when
that venerable one ... into homelessness. Seeing this fruit of diligence
for such a monk, I say that he still has work to do with diligence.
19. "What kind of person is one liberated-by-faith? Here some per-
son does not contact with the body and dwell in those liberations that
are peaceful and formless, transcending forms, but some of his taints
are destroyed by his seeing with wisdom, and his faith is planted,
rooted, and established in the Tathagata. This kind of person is called
one liberated-by-faith.
17
1 say of such a monk that he still has work to
do with diligence. Why is that? Because when that venerable one ...
into homelessness. Seeing this fruit of diligence for such a monk, I say
that he still has work to do with diligence.
20. "What kind of person is a Dhamma-follower? Here some person
does not contact with the body and dwell in those liberations that are
392 In the Buddha's Words
peaceful and formless, transcending forms, and his taints are not yet
destroyed by his seeing with wisdom, but those teachings proclaimed
by the Tathagata are accepted after being pondered to a sufficient
degree with wisdom. Furthermore, he has these qualities: the faith
faculty, the energy faculty, the mindfulness faculty, the concentration
faculty, and the wisdom faculty. This kind of person is called a
Dhamma-follower.
18
1 say of such a monk that he still has work to do
with diligence. Why is that? Because when that venerable one ... into
homelessness. Seeing this fruit of diligence for such a monk, I say that
he still has work to do with diligence.
21. "What kind of person is a faith-follower? Here some person does
not contact with the body and dwell in those liberations that are
peaceful and formless, transcending forms, and his taints are not yet
destroyed by his seeing with wisdom, yet he has sufficient faith in
and love for the Tathagata. Furthermore, he has these qualities: the
faith faculty, the energy faculty, the mindfulness faculty, the concen-
tration faculty, and the wisdom faculty. This kind of person is called
a faith-follower. I say of such a monk that he still has work to do with
diligence. Why is that? Because when that venerable one makes use of
suitable lodgings and associates with good friends and nurtures his
spiritual faculties, he may, by realizing it for himself with direct
knowledge, in this present life enter upon and dwell in that supreme
goal of the spiritual life for the sake of which clansmen rightly go forth
from the home life into homelessness. Seeing this fruit of diligence for
such a monk, I say that he still has work to do with diligence."
(from MN 70: Kitagiri Sutta; 1477-79)
2. STREAM-ENTRY
(1) The Four Factors Leading to Stream-Entry
The Blessed One said to the Venerable Sariputta: "Sariputta, it is said:
'A factor for stream-entry, a factor for stream-entry.' What now,
Sariputta, is a factor for stream-entry?"
"Association with superior persons, venerable sir, is a factor for
stream-entry. Hearing the true Dhamma is a factor for stream-entry.
Careful attention is a factor for stream-entry. Practice in accordance
with the Dhamma is a factor for stream-entry."
i nc L iUllCD UJ CU4MM»*M
"Good, good, Sariputta! It is as you say. Sariputta, it is said: The
stream, the stream.' What now is the stream?"
"This Noble Eightfold Path, venerable sir, is the stream; that is, right
view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right
effort, right mindfulness, right concentration."
"Good, good, Sariputta! It is as you say. Sariputta, it is said: 'A
stream-enterer, a stream-enterer.' What now is a stream-enterer?"
"One who possesses this Noble Eightfold Path, venerable sir, is
called a stream-enterer: this venerable one of such a name and clan."
"Good, good, Sariputta! One who possesses this Noble Eightfold
Path is a stream-enterer: this venerable one of such a name and clan."
(SN 55:5; V 410-11)
(2) Entering the Fixed Course ofRightness
"Monks, the eye is impermanent, changing, undergoing alteration. The
ear ... The nose ... The tongue ... The body ... The mind is imperma-
nent, changing, undergoing alteration. One who places faith in these
teachings and resolves on them thus is called a faith-follower, one who
has entered the fixed course of Tightness,
19
entered the plane of supe-
rior persons, transcended the plane of the worldlings. He is incapable
of doing any deed by reason of which he might be reborn in hell, in the
animal realm, or in the domain of afflicted spirits; he is incapable of
passing away without having realized the fruit of stream-entry.
20
"One for whom these teachings are accepted thus after being pon-
dered to a sufficient degree with wisdom is called a Dhamma-follower,
one who has entered the fixed course of Tightness, entered the plane of
superior persons, transcended the plane of the worldlings. He is inca-
pable of doing any deed by reason of which he might be reborn in hell,
in the animal realm, or in the domain of afflicted spirits; he is incapable
of passing away without having realized the fruit of stream-entry.
"One who knows and sees these teachings thus is called a stream-
enterer, no longer bound to the lower world, fixed in destiny, with
enlightenment as his destination."
21
(SN
25:1;
III 225)
394 In the Buddha's Words
(3) The Breakthrough to the Dhamma
The Blessed One took up a little bit of soil in his fingernail and
addressed the monks thus:
"Monks, what do you think, which is more: the little bit of soil that
I have taken up in my fingernail or this great earth?"
"Venerable sir, the great earth is more. The little bit of soil that the
Blessed One has taken up in his fingernail is trifling. It does not amount
to a hundredth part, or a thousandth part, or a hundred thousandth
part of the great earth."
"So too, monks, for a noble disciple, a person accomplished in view
who has made the breakthrough, the suffering that has been destroyed
and eliminated is more, while that which remains is trifling. The latter
does not amount to a hundredth part, or a thousandth part, or a hun-
dred thousandth part of the former mass of suffering that has been
destroyed and eliminated, since there is a maximum of seven more
lives. Of such great benefit, monks, is the breakthrough to the
Dhamma, of such great benefit is it to obtain the vision of the
Dhamma."
22
(SN 13:1; II133-34)
(4) The Four Factors of a Stream-Enterer
"Monks, a noble disciple who possesses four things is a stream-enterer,
no longer bound to the lower world, fixed in destiny, with enlighten-
ment as his destination.
"What four? Here, monks, a noble disciple possesses confirmed con-
fidence
23
in the Buddha thus: The Blessed One is an arahant, perfectly
enlightened, accomplished in true knowledge and conduct, fortunate,
knower of the world, unsurpassed leader of persons to be tamed,
teacher of devas and humans, the Enlightened One, the Blessed One.'
He possesses confirmed confidence in the Dhamma thus: 'The
Dhamma is well expounded by the Blessed One, directly visible,
immediate, inviting one to come and see, worthy of application, to be
personally experienced by the wise.' He possesses confirmed confi-
dence in the Sahgha thus: 'The Sahgha of the Blessed One's disciples
is practicing the good way, practicing the straight way, practicing the
true way, practicing the proper way; that is, the four pairs of persons,
the eight types of individuals—this Sahgha of the Blessed One's disci-
ples is worthy of gifts, worthy of hospitality, worthy of offerings, wor-
thy of reverential salutation, the unsurpassed field of merit for the
world.' He possesses the moral virtues dear to the noble ones, unbro-
ken, untorn, unblemished, unmottled, freeing, praised by the wise,
ungrasped, leading to concentration.
"A noble disciple, monks, who possesses these four things is a
stream-enterer, no longer bound to the lower world, fixed in destiny,
with enlightenment as his destination."
(SN 55:2; V 343-44)
(5) Better than Sovereignty over the Earth
"Monks, although a wheel-turning monarch, having exercised supreme
sovereignty over the four continents, with the breakup of the body,
after death, is reborn in a good destination, in a heavenly world, in the
company of the devas of the Tavatimsa realm, and there in the Nan-
dana Grove, accompanied by a retinue of celestial nymphs, he enjoys
himself supplied and endowed with the five cords of celestial sensual
pleasure, still, as he does not possess four things, he is not freed from
hell, the animal realm, and the domain of afflicted spirits, not freed
from the plane of misery, the bad destinations, the lower world.
24
Although, monks, a noble disciple maintains himself by lumps of alms-
food and wears rag-robes, still, as he possesses four things, he is freed
from hell, the animal realm, and the domain of afflicted spirits, freed
from the plane of misery, the bad destinations, the lower world. What
four things? Confirmed confidence in the Buddha, the Dhamma, and
the Sahgha, and the moral virtues dear to the noble ones. And, monks,
between the obtaining of sovereignty over the four continents and the
obtaining of the four things, the obtaining of sovereignty over the four
continents is not worth a sixteenth part of the obtaining of the four
things."
(SN
55:1;
V 342)
396 In the Buddha's Words
3. NONRETURNING
(1) Abandoning the Five Lower Fetters
7. 'There is a path and way, Ananda, to the abandoning of the five
lower fetters. That anyone, without relying on that path and way,
might know or see or abandon the five lower fetters—this is not pos-
sible. Just as when there is a great tree standing possessed of heart-
wood, it is not possible that anyone might cut out its heartwood
without cutting through its bark and sapwood, so too, in the case of
abandoning the five lower fetters.
"There is a path and way, Ananda, to the abandoning of the five
lower fetters. That someone, by relying on that path and way, might
know and see and abandon the five lower fetters—this is possible. Just
as, when there is a great tree standing possessed of heartwood, it is
possible that someone might cut out its heartwood by cutting through
its bark and sapwood, so too, in the case of abandoning the five lower
fetters.
8. "Suppose, Ananda, the river Ganges were full of water right up to
the brim so that crows could drink from it, and then a feeble man came
thinking: 'By swimming across the stream with my arms, I shall get
safely across to the further shore of this river Ganges'; yet he would not
be able to get safely across. So too, when the Dhamma is being taught
to someone for the cessation of identity, if his mind does not enter into
it and acquire confidence, steadiness, and resolution, then he can be
regarded as like the feeble man.
25
"Suppose, Ananda, the river Ganges were full of water right up to
the brim so that crows could drink from it, and then a strong man came
thinking: 'By swimming across the stream with my arms, I shall get
safely across to the further shore of this river Ganges'; and he would
be able to get safely across. So too, when the Dhamma is being taught
to someone for the cessation of identity, if his mind enters into it and
acquires confidence, steadiness, and resolution, then he can be
regarded as like the strong man.
9. "And what, Ananda, is the path and way to the abandoning of
the five lower fetters? Here, with seclusion from acquisitions,
26
with
the abandoning of unwholesome states, with the complete tranquiliz-
ing of bodily inertia, secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from
unwholesome states, a monk enters and dwells in the first jhana, which
Pi
is accompanied by thought and examination, with rapture and happi-
ness born of seclusion.
"Whatever exists therein of form, feeling, perception, volitional for-
mations, and consciousness, he sees those states as impermanent, as
suffering, as a disease, as a tumor, as a barb, as a calamity, as an afflic-
tion, as alien, as disintegrating, as empty, as nonself.
27
He turns his
mind away from those states and directs it toward the deathless ele-
ment thus: 'This is the peaceful, this is the sublime, that is, the stilling
of all formations, the relinquishing of all acquisitions, the destruction
of craving, dispassion, cessation, Nibbana.'
28
If he is steady in that, he
attains the destruction of the taints. But if he does not attain the
destruction of the taints, then through that very desire for the
Dhamma, that delight in the Dhamma, with the destruction of the five
lower fetters he becomes one due to be reborn spontaneously [in the
pure abodes] and there attain final Nibbana without ever returning
from that world.
29
This is the path and way to the abandoning of the
five lower fetters.
10-12. "Again, with the subsiding of thought and examination, a
monk enters and dwells in the second jhana.... Again, with the fading
away as well of rapture, a monk ... enters and dwells in the third
jhana.... Again, with the abandoning of pleasure and pain ... a monk
enters and dwells in the fourth jhana, which has neither-pain-nor-
pleasure and purity of mindfulness due to equanimity.
"Whatever exists therein of form, feeling, perception, volitional for-
mations, and consciousness, he sees those states as impermanent... as
nonself. He turns his mind away from those states and directs it toward
the deathless element... This is the path and way to the abandoning of
the five lower fetters.
13. "Again, with the complete transcending of perceptions of forms,
with the passing away of perceptions of sensory impingement, with
nonattention to perceptions of diversity, aware that 'space is infinite,'
a monk enters upon and dwells in the base of the infinity of space.
"Whatever exists therein of feeling, perception, volitional forma-
tions, and consciousness,
30
he sees those states as impermanent ... as
nonself. He turns his mind away from those states and directs it toward
the deathless element ... This is the path and way to the abandoning
of the five lower fetters.
14. "Again, by completely transcending the base of the infinity of
398 In the Buddha's Words
space, aware that 'consciousness is infinite/ a monk enters upon and
dwells in the base of the infinity of consciousness.
"Whatever exists therein of feeling, perception, volitional forma-
tions, and consciousness, he sees those states as impermanent ... as
nonself. He turns his mind away from those states and directs it toward
the deathless element... This is the path and way to the abandoning of
the five lower fetters.
15. "Again, by completely transcending the base of the infinity of
consciousness, aware that 'there is nothing/ a monk enters upon and
dwells in the base of nothingness.
"Whatever exists therein of feeling, perception, volitional forma-
tions, and consciousness, he sees those states as impermanent, as suf-
fering, as a disease, as a tumor, as a barb, as a calamity, as an affliction,
as alien, as disintegrating, as void, as nonself. He turns his mind away
from those states and directs it toward the deathless element thus:
'This is the peaceful, this is the sublime, that is, the stilling of all for-
mations, the relinquishing of all acquisitions, the destruction of crav-
ing, dispassion, cessation, Nibbana.' If he is steady in that, he attains
the destruction of the taints. But if he does not attain the destruction
of the taints, then through that very desire for the Dhamma, that
delight in the Dhamma, with the destruction of the five lower fetters
he becomes one due to be reborn spontaneously [in the pure abodes]
and there attain final Nibbana without ever returning from that
world. This is the path and way to the abandoning of the five lower
fetters."
(from MN 64: Mahamalurikya Sutta; 1434-37)
(2) Four Kinds of Persons
"There are, O monks, four kinds of persons found existing in the
world. What four?
"Here, monks, in this very life a person attains Nibbana through
volitional exertion. Here, with the breakup of the body, a person attains
final Nibbana through volitional exertion. Here, in this very life a per-
son attains final Nibbana without volitional exertion. Here, with the
breakup of the body, a person attains final Nibbana without volitional
exertion.
"And how, monks, does a person, in this very life, attain Nibbana
1 he Flanes of
through volitional exertion? Here, a monk dwells contemplating the
unattractiveness of the body, perceiving repulsiveness in food, perceiv-
ing discontent with the entire world, contemplating impermanence in
all formations; and the perception of death is well established within
him.
31
He dwells relying upon these five powers of a trainee: the pow-
ers of faith, moral shame, fear of wrongdoing, energy, and wisdom.
These five faculties are extremely strong in him: the faculties of faith,
energy, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom. Because of the
strength of these five faculties, in this very life he attains Nibbana
through volitional exertion. This is how a person, in this very life,
attains Nibbana through volitional exertion.
"And how, monks, does a person, with the breakup of the body,
attain Nibbana through volitional exertion? Here, a monk dwells con-
templating the unattractiveness of the body ... and the perception of
death is well established within him. He dwells relying upon these five
powers of a trainee: the powers of faith ... and wisdom. These five fac-
ulties are relatively feeble in him: the faculties of faith ... and wisdom.
Because of the feebleness of these five faculties, with the breakup of the
body, he attains Nibbana through volitional exertion. This is how a
person, with the breakup of the body, attains Nibbana through voli-
tional exertion.
"And how, monks, does a person, in this very life, attain Nibbana
without volitional exertion? Here, secluded from sensual pleasures,
secluded from unwholesome states, a monk enters and dwells in the
first jhana ... the fourth jhana. He dwells relying upon these five pow-
ers of a trainee: the powers of faith... and wisdom. These five faculties
are extremely strong in him: the faculties of faith ... and wisdom.
Because of the strength of these five faculties, in this very life he attains
Nibbana without volitional exertion. This is how a person, in this very
life, attains Nibbana without volitional exertion.
"And how, monks, does a person, with the breakup of the body,
attain Nibbana without volitional exertion? Here, secluded from sen-
sual pleasures, secluded from unwholesome states, a monk enters and
dwells in the first jhana ... the fourth jhana. He dwells relying upon
these five powers of a trainee: the powers of faith ... and wisdom.
These five faculties are relatively feeble in him: the faculties of faith ...
and wisdom. Because of the feebleness of these five faculties, with the
breakup of the body, he attains Nibbana without volitional exertion.
400 In the Buddha's Words
This is how a person, with the breakup of the body, attains Nibbana
without volitional exertion.
"These, monks, are the four kinds of persons found existing in the
world."
(AN 4:169; II155-56)
(3) Six Things that Partake of True Knowledge
On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at Rajagaha in the Bam-
boo Grove, the Squirrel Sanctuary. Now on that occasion the lay fol-
lower Dighavu was sick, afflicted, gravely ill. Then the lay follower
Dighavu addressed his father, the householder Jotika, thus: "Come,
householder, approach the Blessed One, pay homage to him in my
name with your head at his feet, and say: 'Venerable sir, the lay fol-
lower Dighavu is sick, afflicted, gravely ill; he pays homage to the
Blessed One with his head at the Blessed One's feet.' Then say: 'It
would be good, venerable sir, if the Blessed One would come to the
residence of the lay follower Dighavu out of compassion.'"
"Yes, dear," the householder Jotika replied, and he approached the
Blessed One, paid homage to him, sat down to one side, and delivered
his message. The Blessed One consented by silence.
Then the Blessed One dressed and, taking bowl and robe, went to the
residence of the lay follower Dighavu. He then sat down in the
appointed seat and said to the lay follower Dighavu: "I hope you are
bearing up, Dighavu, I hope you are getting better. I hope your painful
feelings are subsiding and not increasing, and that their subsiding, not
their increase, is to be discerned."
"Venerable sir, I am not bearing up, I am not getting better. Strong
painful feelings are increasing in me, not subsiding, and their increase,
not their subsiding, is to be discerned."
"Therefore, Dighavu, you should train yourself thus: T will be one
who has confirmed confidence in the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the
Sahgha, and who observes the moral virtues dear to the noble ones,
unbroken, untorn, unblemished, unmottled, freeing, praised by the
wise, ungrasped, leading to concentration.' It is in such a way that you
should train yourself."
"Venerable sir, as to these four factors of stream-entry that have
been taught by the Blessed One, these things exist in me, and I live in
conformity with those things. For, venerable sir, I have confirmed con-
fidence in the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sahgha, and I observe the
moral virtues dear to the noble ones."
"Therefore, Dighavu, established upon these four factors of stream-
entry, you should develop further six things that partake of true knowl-
edge. Here, Dighavu, dwell contemplating impermanence in all
formations, perceiving suffering in what is impermanent, perceiving
nonself in what is suffering, perceiving abandonment, perceiving fad-
ing away, perceiving cessation.
32
It is in such a way that you should
train yourself."
"Venerable sir, as to these six things that partake of true knowledge
that have been taught by the Blessed One, these things exist in me, and
I live in conformity with those things. For, venerable sir, I dwell contem-
plating impermanence in all formations, perceiving suffering in what
is impermanent, perceiving nonself in what is suffering, perceiving
abandonment, perceiving fading away, perceiving cessation. However,
venerable sir, I hope that after I expire, my father won't be distressed."
"Don't be concerned about this, dear Dighavu. Come now, dear
Dighavu, pay close attention to what the Blessed One is saying to you."
Then the Blessed One, having given this exhortation to the lay fol-
lower Dighavu, rose from his seat and departed. Then, not long after
the Blessed One had left, the lay follower Dighavu died.
Then a number of monks approached the Blessed One, paid homage
to him, sat down to one side, and said: "Venerable sir, the lay follower
Dighavu has died. What is his destination? Where was he reborn?"
"Monks, the lay follower Dighavu was wise. He practiced in accor-
dance with the Dhamma and did not trouble me on account of the
Dhamma. With the utter destruction of the five lower fetters, the lay
follower Dighavu has become one of spontaneous birth [in the pure
abodes], due to attain Nibbana there without returning from that
world."
(SN 55:3; V 344-46)
(4) Five Kinds of Nonreturners
"Monks, when these seven factors of enlightenment have been devel-
oped and cultivated in this way, seven fruits and benefits may be
expected. What are the seven fruits and benefits?
402 In the Buddha's Words
"One attains final knowledge (of arahantship) early in this very life.
"If one does not attain final knowledge early in this very life, then
one attains final knowledge at the time of death.
"If one does not attain final knowledge early in this very life or at the
time of death, then with the utter destruction of the five lower fetters
one attains Nibbana in the interval.
33
"If one does not attain final knowledge early in this very life ... or
attain Nibbana in the interval, then with the utter destruction of the
five lower fetters one attains Nibbana upon landing.
"If one does not attain final knowledge early in this very life ... or
attain Nibbana upon landing, then with the utter destruction of the
five lower fetters one attains Nibbana without volitional exertion.
"If one does not attain final knowledge early in this very life ... or
attain Nibbana without volitional exertion, then with the utter destruc-
tion of the five lower fetters one attains Nibbana with volitional
exertion.
"If one does not attain final knowledge early in this very life ... or
attain Nibbana with volitional exertion, then with the utter destruc-
tion of the five lower fetters one becomes one bound upstream, head-
ing toward the Akanittha realm.
"When, monks, the seven factors of enlightenment have been devel-
oped and cultivated in this way, these seven fruits and benefits may be
expected."
(SN 46:3; V 69-70)
4. THE ARAHANT
(1) Removing the Residual Conceit "I Am"
On one occasion a number of elder monks were dwelling at Kosambi
in Ghosita's Park. Now on that occasion the Venerable Khemaka was
living at Jujube Tree Park, sick, afflicted, gravely ill.
Then, in the evening, those elder monks emerged from seclusion
and addressed the Venerable Dasaka thus: "Come, friend Dasaka,
approach the monk Khemaka and say to him: 'The elders say to you,
friend Khemaka: We hope that you are bearing up, friend, we hope
that you are getting better. We hope that your painful feelings are sub-
siding and not increasing, and that their subsiding, not their increase,
is to be discerned.'"
l ne t"lanes oj ismuzui.
"Yes, friends," the Venerable Dasaka replied, and he approached the
Venerable Khemaka and delivered his message.
[The Venerable Khemaka answered:] "I am not bearing up, friend, I
am not getting better. Strong painful feelings are increasing in me, not
subsiding, and their increase, not their subsiding, is to be discerned."
Then the Venerable Dasaka approached the elder monks and
reported what the Venerable Khemaka had said. They told him:
"Come, friend Dasaka, approach the monk Khemaka and say to him:
'The elders say to you, friend Khemaka: These five aggregates subject
to clinging have been spoken of by the Blessed One; that is, form, feel-
ing, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness. Does the
Venerable Khemaka regard anything as self or as belonging to self
among these five aggregates subject to clinging?'"
"Yes, friends," the Venerable Dasaka replied, and he approached the
Venerable Khemaka and delivered his message.
[The Venerable Khemaka replied:] "These five aggregates subject to
clinging have been spoken of by the Blessed One; that is, form, feeling,
perception, volitional formations, and consciousness. Among these five
aggregates subject to clinging, I do not regard anything as self or as
belonging to self."
Then the Venerable Dasaka approached the elder monks and
reported what the Venerable Khemaka had said. They replied: "Come,
friend Dasaka, approach the monk Khemaka and say to him: If the
Venerable Khemaka does not regard anything among these five aggre-
gates as self or as belonging to self, then he is an arahant, one whose
taints are destroyed.'"
34
"Yes, friends," the Venerable Dasaka replied, and he approached the
Venerable Khemaka and delivered his message.
[The Venerable Khemaka replied:] "These five aggregates subject to
clinging have been spoken of by the Blessed One; that is, form, feeling,
perception, volitional formations, and consciousness. I do not regard
anything among these five aggregates subject to clinging as self or as
belonging to self, yet I am not an arahant, one whose taints are de-
stroyed. Friends, [the notion] T am' has not yet vanished in me in rela-
tion to these five aggregates subject to clinging, but I do not regard
[anything among them] as 'This I am.'"
35
Then the Venerable Dasaka approached the elder monks and
reported what the Venerable Khemaka had said. They replied:
"Come, friend Dasaka, approach the monk Khemaka and say to him:
404 In the Buddha's Words
'The elders say to you, friend Khemaka: Friend Khemaka, when you
speak of this "I am"—what is it that you speak of as "I am"? Do you
speak of form as "I am," or do you speak of "I am" apart from form?
Do you speak of feeling ... of perception ... of volitional formations ...
of consciousness as "I am/' or do you speak of "I am" apart from con-
sciousness? When you speak of this "I am," friend Khemaka, what is
it that you speak of as "I am"?'"
"Yes, friends," the Venerable Dasaka replied, and he approached the
Venerable Khemaka and delivered his message.
"Enough, friend Dasaka! Why keep running back and forth? Bring
me my staff, friend. I'll go to the elder monks myself."
Then the Venerable Khemaka, leaning on his staff, approached the
elder monks, exchanged greetings with them, and sat down to one
side. The elder monks then said to him: "Friend Khemaka, when you
speak of this T am' ... what is it that you speak of as T am'?"
"Friends, I do not speak of form as T am/ nor do I speak of T am'
apart from form. I do not speak of feeling as T am'... nor of perception
as T am' ... nor of volitional formations as T am' ... nor of conscious-
ness as T am,' nor do I speak of T am' apart from consciousness.
Friends, although [the notion] T am' has not yet vanished in me in rela-
tion to these five aggregates subject to clinging, still I do not regard
[anything among them] as 'This I am.'
"Suppose, friends, there is the scent of a blue, red, or white lotus.
Would one be speaking rightly if one would say, 'The scent belongs to
the petals/ or 'The scent belongs to the stalk/ or 'The scent belongs to the
pistils'?"
"No, friend."
"And how, friends, should one answer if one is to answer rightly?"
"Answering rightly, friend, one should answer: 'The scent belongs to
the flower.'"
"So too, friends, I do not speak of form as T am/ nor do I speak of T
am' apart from form. I do not speak of feeling as T am' ... nor of per-
ception as T am'... nor of volitional formations as T am'... nor of con-
sciousness as T am/ nor do I speak of T am' apart from consciousness.
Friends, although [the notion] 'I am' has not yet vanished in me in rela-
tion to these five aggregates subject to clinging, still I do not regard
[anything among them] as 'This I am.'
"Friends, even though a noble disciple has abandoned the five lower
i nt riuriKo uj i«n»i"i'
fetters, still, in relation to the five aggregates subject to clinging, there
lingers in him a residual conceit T am/ a desire T am,' an underlying
tendency T am' that has not yet been uprooted. Sometime later he
dwells contemplating rise and fall in the five aggregates subject to
clinging: 'Such is form, such its origin, such its passing away; such is
feeling ... such is perception ... such are volitional formations ... such
is consciousness, such its origin, such its passing away.' As he dwells
thus contemplating rise and fall in the five aggregates subject to cling-
ing, the residual conceit T am/ the desire T am,' the underlying ten-
dency T am' that had not yet been uprooted—this comes to be
uprooted.
"Suppose, friends, a cloth has become soiled and stained, and its
owners give it to a laundryman. The laundryman would scour it
evenly with cleaning salt, lye, or cow dung, and rinse it in clean water.
Even though that cloth would become pure and clean, it would still
retain a residual smell of cleaning salt, lye, or cow dung that had not
yet vanished. The laundryman would then give it back to the owners.
The owners would put it in a sweet-scented chest, and the residual
smell of cleaning salt, lye, or cow dung that had not yet vanished
would vanish.
36
"So too, friends, even though a noble disciple has abandoned the
five lower fetters, still, in relation to the five aggregates subject to cling-
ing, there lingers in him a residual conceit 'I am,' a desire 'I am/ an
underlying tendency T am' that has not yet been uprooted.... As he
dwells thus contemplating rise and fall in the five aggregates subject to
clinging, the residual conceit T am,' the desire 1 am,' the underlying
tendency T am' that had not yet been uprooted—this comes to be
uprooted."
When this was said, the elder monks said to the Venerable Khemaka:
"We did not ask our questions in order to trouble the Venerable Khe-
maka, but we thought that the Venerable Khemaka would be capable
of explaining, teaching, proclaiming, establishing, disclosing, analyz-
ing, and elucidating the Blessed One's teaching in detail. And the Ven-
erable Khemaka has explained, taught, proclaimed, established,
disclosed, analyzed, and elucidated the Blessed One's teaching in
detail."
Thus the elder monks were elated and delighted in the Venerable
Khemaka's statement. And while this discourse was being spoken, the
406 In the Buddha's Words
minds of sixty elder monks and of the Venerable Khemaka were liber-
ated from the taints by nonclinging.
(SN 22:89; III 126-32)
(2) The Trainee and the Arahant
At Kosambi in Ghosita's Park the Blessed One addressed the
monks thus:
"There is a method, monks, by means of which a monk who is a
trainee, standing on the plane of a trainee, might understand: T am a
trainee,' while a monk beyond training, standing on the plane of one
beyond training, might understand: T am one beyond training.'
"And what, monks, is the method by means of which a monk who
is a trainee, standing on the plane of a trainee, understands: T am a
trainee'?
"Here, monks, a monk who is a trainee understands as it really is:
'This is suffering. This is the origin of suffering. This is the cessation of
suffering. This is the way leading to the cessation of suffering.' This is
a method by means of which a monk who is a trainee, standing on the
plane of a trainee, understands: T am a trainee.'
"Again, monks, a monk who is a trainee considers thus: 'Is there out-
side here
37
another ascetic or brahmin who teaches a Dhamma so real,
true, and actual as the Blessed One does?' He understands thus: 'There
is no other ascetic or brahmin outside here who teaches a Dhamma so
real, true, and actual as the Blessed One does.' This too is a method by
means of which a monk who is a trainee, standing on the plane of a
trainee, understands: T am a trainee.'
"Again, monks, a monk who is a trainee understands the five spiri-
tual faculties—the faculties of faith, energy, mindfulness, concentra-
tion, and wisdom. He does not yet dwell having contacted with the
body that which is their destination, their culmination, their fruit, their
final goal; but having pierced it through with wisdom, he sees.
38
This
too is a method by means of which a monk who is a trainee, standing
on the plane of a trainee, understands: T am a trainee.'
"And what, monks, is the method by means of which a monk
beyond training, standing on the plane of one beyond training, under-
stands: T am one beyond training'? Here, monks, a monk beyond train-
ing understands the five spiritual faculties—the faculties of faith ...
i nt riuiico uj ncnuiiiuun
wisdom. He dwells having contacted with the body that which is their
destination, their culmination, their fruit, their final goal; and having
pierced it through with wisdom, he sees. This is a method by means of
which a monk beyond training, standing on the plane of one beyond
training, understands: T am one beyond training.'
"Again, monks, a monk beyond training understands the six facul-
ties—the eye faculty, the ear faculty, the nose faculty, the tongue faculty,
the body faculty, the mind faculty. He understands: 'These six faculties
will cease completely and totally without remainder, and no other six
faculties will arise anywhere in any way.' This too is a method by
means of which a monk beyond training, standing on the plane of one
beyond training, understands: T am one beyond training.'"
(SN 48:53: V 229-30)
(3) A Monk Whose Crossbar Has Been Lifted
30. "Monks, an arahant is called one whose crossbar has been lifted,
whose trench has been filled in, whose pillar has been uprooted, one
who has no bolt, a noble one whose banner is lowered, whose burden
is lowered, who is unfettered.
31. "And how is the arahant one whose crossbar has been lifted?
Here the arahant has abandoned ignorance, has cut it off at the root,
made it like a palm stump, done away with it, so that it is no longer
subject to future arising. That is how he is one whose crossbar has been
lifted.
32. "And how is the arahant one whose trench has been filled in?
Here the arahant has abandoned the round of rebirths, the process of
renewed existence, has cut it off at the root ... so that it is no longer
subject to future arising. That is how he is one whose trench has been
filled in.
33. "And how is the arahant one whose pillar has been uprooted?
Here the arahant has abandoned craving, has cut it off at the root... so
that it is no longer subject to future arising. That is how he is one whose
pillar has been uprooted.
34. "And how is the arahant one who has no bolt? Here the monk
has abandoned the five lower fetters, has cut them off at the root... so
that they are no longer subject to future arising. That is how he is one
who has no bolt.
408 In the Buddha's Words
35. "And how is the arahant a noble one whose banner is lowered
whose burden is lowered, who is unfettered? Here the arahant has
abandoned the conceit 'I am/ has cut it off at the root... so that it is no
longer subject to future arising. That is how he is a noble one whose
banner is lowered, whose burden is lowered, who is unfettered."
(from MN 22: Alagaddupama Sutta; 1139-40)
(4) Nine Things an Arahant Cannot Do
"In the past, and also now, I declare that a monk who is an arahant
with taints destroyed—one who has lived the spiritual life, done his
task, laid down the burden, attained his own goal, utterly destroyed
the fetters of existence, and become liberated by final knowledge—is
incapable of transgression in regard to nine things: he is incapable of
destroying life, of taking what is not given, of engaging in the sexual
act, of telling a deliberate lie, and of making use of stored-up enjoy-
ments as he did in the past when he was a householder; further, he is
incapable of taking a wrong course of action on account of desire, on
account of hatred, on account of delusion, or on account of fear. In the
past, and also now, I declare that a monk who is an arahant is inca-
pable of transgression in regard to these nine things."
(from AN 9:7; IV 370-71)
(5) A Mind Unshaken
[The Venerable Sariputta said:] "When, friend, a monk is thus liber-
ated in mind, even if powerful forms cognizable by the eye come into
range of his eye, they do not obsess his mind; his mind remains uncon-
taminated, steady, attained to imperturbability, and he contemplates
their fall. Even if powerful sounds cognizable by the ear ... smells cog-
nizable by the nose ... flavors cognizable by the tongue ... tactile
objects cognizable by the body ... mental phenomena cognizable by
the mind come into range of his mind, they do not obsess his mind; his
mind remains uncontaminated, steady, attained to imperturbability,
and he contemplates their fall. Suppose, friend, there were a stone pil-
lar sixteen meters long, eight meters sunk in the ground and eight
meters above the ground. Then a powerful rainstorm would come
from the east: the pillar would not budge, would not shake, would not
The Planes of Realization 409
tremble. Then a powerful rainstorm would come from the north ...
from the west... from the south: the pillar would not budge, would not
shake, would not tremble. Why not? Because of the depth of the base
and because the stone pillar has been deeply planted. So too for a monk
thus liberated in mind, if powerful sense objects come into range, they
do not obsess his mind; his mind remains uncontaminated, steady,
attained to imperturbability, and he contemplates their fall."
(from AN 9:26; IV 404-5)
(6) The Ten Powers of an Arahant Monk
The Buddha asked the Venerable Sariputta: "How many powers does
an arahant monk have, Sariputta, possessing which he claims that he
has attained the destruction of the taints?"
"The arahant monk has ten powers, venerable sir, possessing which
he claims that he has attained the destruction of the taints. What ten?
"Here, venerable sir, for an arahant monk all formations have been
well seen as they really are with correct wisdom as impermanent. This
is a power of an arahant monk on the basis of which he claims that he
has attained the destruction of the taints.
"Again, venerable sir, for an arahant monk sensual pleasures have
been well seen as they really are with correct wisdom as similar to a
charcoal pit. This too is a power of an arahant monk ...
"Again, venerable sir, the mind of an arahant monk slants, slopes,
and inclines to seclusion; it dwells in seclusion, delights in renuncia-
tion, and is entirely finished with all things that are a basis for the
taints. This too is a power of an arahant monk....
"Further, venerable sir, for an arahant monk the four establishments
of mindfulness have been developed to the point that they are well
developed. This too is a power of an arahant monk....
"Further, venerable sir, for an arahant monk the four right kinds of
striving ... the four bases for spiritual power ... the five spiritual fac-
ulties ... the five powers ... the seven factors of enlightenment ... the
Noble Eightfold Path has been developed to the point that it is well
developed. This too is a power of an arahant monk on the basis of
which he claims that he has attained the destruction of the taints."
39
(AN 10:90; V 174-75)
410 In the Buddha's Words
(7) The Sage at Peace
20. [The Buddha further addressed Pukkusati thus:] "Then [after con-
templating the six elements], there remains only equanimity, purified
and bright, malleable, wieldy, and radiant.
40
...
21. "He understands thus: 'If I were to direct this equanimity, so
purified and bright, to the base of the infinity of space and to develop
my mind accordingly, then this equanimity of mine, supported by
this base, clinging to it, would remain for a very long time.
41
If I were
to direct this equanimity, so purified and bright, to the base of the
infinity of consciousness ... to the base of nothingness ... to the base
of neither-perception-nor-non-perception and to develop my mind
accordingly, then this equanimity of mine, supported by this base,
clinging to it, would remain for a very long time.'
22. "He understands thus: 'If I were to direct this equanimity, so
purified and bright, to the base of the infinity of space and to develop
my mind accordingly, this would be conditioned.
42
If I were to direct
this equanimity, so purified and bright, to the base of the infinity of
consciousness ... to the base of nothingness ... to the base of neither-
perception-nor-non-perception and to develop my mind accordingly,
this would be conditioned.' He does not construct or generate any voli-
tion tending toward either existence or non-existence.
43
Since he does
not construct or generate any volition tending toward either existence
or nonexistence, he does not cling to anything in this world. Not cling-
ing, he is not agitated. Not being agitated, he personally attains
Nibbana. He understands: 'Birth is destroyed, the spiritual life has
been lived, what had to be done has been done, there is no more com-
ing back to any state of being.'
44
23. "If he feels a pleasant feeling,
45
he understands: 'It is imperma-
nent; there is no holding to it; there is no delight in it.' If he feels a
painful feeling, he understands: 'It is impermanent; there is no holding
to it; there is no delight in it.' If he feels a neither-painful-nor-pleasant
feeling, he understands: 'It is impermanent; there is no holding to it;
there is no delight in it.'
24. "If he feels a pleasant feeling, he feels it detached; if he feels a
painful feeling, he feels it detached; if he feels a neither-painful-nor-
pleasant feeling, he feels it detached. When he feels a feeling terminat-
ing with the body, he understands: T feel a feeling terminating with the
The Planes of Realization 411
body.' When he feels a feeling terminating with life, he understands: T
feel a feeling terminating with life.' He understands: 'On the dissolu-
tion of the body, with the ending of life, all that is felt, not being
delighted in, will become cool right here.'
46
Monk, just as an oil-lamp
burns in dependence on oil and a wick, and when the oil and wick are
used up, if it does not get any more fuel, it is extinguished from lack of
fuel; so too when he feels a feeling terminating with the body ... a feel-
ing terminating with life, he understands: T feel a feeling terminating
with life.' He understands: 'On the dissolution of the body, with the
ending of life, all that is felt, not being delighted in, will become cool
right here.'
47
25. "Therefore a monk possessing [this wisdom] possesses the
supreme foundation of wisdom. For this, monk, is the supreme noble
wisdom, namely, the knowledge of the destruction of all suffering.
26. "His liberation, being founded upon truth, is unshakable. For
that is false, monk, which has a deceptive nature, and that is true which
has an undeceptive nature—Nibbana. Therefore a monk possessing
[this truth] possesses the supreme foundation of truth. For this, monk,
is the supreme noble truth, namely, Nibbana, which has an undecep-
tive nature.
48
27. "Formerly, when he was ignorant, he undertook and accepted
acquisitions;
49
now he has abandoned them, cut them off at the root,
made them like a palm stump, done away with them so that they are
no longer subject to future arising. Therefore a monk possessing [this
relinquishment] possesses the supreme foundation of relinquishment.
For this, monk, is the supreme noble relinquishment, namely, the relin-
quishing of all acquisitions.
28. "Formerly, when he was ignorant, he experienced covetousness,
desire, and lust; now he has abandoned them, cut them off at the root,
made them like a palm stump, done away with them so that they are
no longer subject to future arising. Formerly, when he was ignorant, he
experienced anger, ill will, and hate; now he has abandoned them, cut
them off at the root, made them like a palm stump, done away with
them so that they are no longer subject to future arising. Formerly,
when he was ignorant, he experienced ignorance and delusion; now he
has abandoned them, cut them off at the root, made them like a palm
stump, done away with them so that they are no longer subject to
future arising. Therefore a monk possessing [this peace] possesses the
412 In the Buddha's Words
supreme foundation of peace. For this, monk, is the supreme noble
peace, namely, the pacification of lust, hate, and delusion.
29. "So it was with reference to this that it was said: 'One should not
neglect wisdom, should preserve truth, should cultivate relinquish-
ment, and should train for peace.'
30. "'The tides of conceiving do not sweep over one who stands
upon these [foundations], and when the tides of conceiving no longer
sweep over him he is called a sage at peace.'
50
So it was said. And with
reference to what was this said?
31. "Monk, T am' is a conceiving; T am this' is a conceiving; T shall
be' is a conceiving; 'I shall not be' is a conceiving; T shall have a phys-
ical form' is a conceiving; 'I shall be formless' is a conceiving; 'I shall
be percipient' is a conceiving; 'I shall be nonpercipient' is a conceiving;
T shall be neither-percipient-nor-nonpercipient' is a conceiving.
51
Con-
ceiving is a disease, conceiving is a tumor, conceiving is a dart. By over-
coming all conceivings, monk, one is called a sage at peace. And the
sage at peace is not born, does not age, does not die; he is not shaken
and does not yearn. For there is nothing present in him by which he
might be born.
52
Not being born, how could he age? Not aging, how
could he die? Not dying, how could he be shaken? Not being shaken,
why should he yearn?
32. "So it was with reference to this that it was said: 'The tides of
conceiving do not sweep over one who stands upon these [founda-
tions], and when the tides of conceiving no longer sweep over him he
is called a sage at peace.'"
(from MN 140: Dhatuvibhanga Sutta; III 244^7)
(8) Happy Indeed Are the Arahants
Happy indeed are the arahants!
No craving can be found in them.
Cut off is the conceit "I am,"
Burst asunder is delusion's net.
They have reached the unstirred state,
Limpid are their minds;
They are unsullied in the world
The holy ones, without taints.
The Planes of Realization 413
Having fully understood the five aggregates,
Ranging in the seven good qualities,
53
Those praiseworthy superior persons
Are the Buddha's bosom offspring.
Endowed with the seven gems,
Trained in the threefold training,
54
Those great heroes wander about
With fear and trembling abandoned.
Endowed with the ten factors,
Those great nagas, concentrated,
Are the best beings in the world:
No craving can be found in them.
55
The adepts' knowledge has arisen in them:
"This body is the last I bear."
In regard to the core of the spiritual life
They no longer depend on others.
They do not waver in discrimination,
56
They are released from renewed existence.
Having reached the stage of the tamed,
They are the victors in the world.
Above, across, and below,
Delight is no more found in them.
They boldly sound their lion's roar:
"The enlightened are supreme in the world."
(from SN 22:76; III 83-84)
5. THE TATHAGATA
(1) The Buddha and the Arahant
"Monks, through disenchantment with form, feeling, perception, voli-
tional formations, and consciousness, through their fading away and
cessation, the Tathagata, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One, is
414 In the Buddha's Words
liberated by nonclinging; he is called a Perfectly Enlightened One.
Through disenchantment with form, feeling, perception, volitional for-
mations, and consciousness, through their fading away and cessation,
a monk liberated by wisdom is liberated by nonclinging; he is called
one liberated by wisdom.
57
"Therein, monks, what is the distinction, the disparity, the difference
between the Tathagata, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One,
and a monk liberated by wisdom?"
"Venerable sir, our teachings are rooted in the Blessed One, guided
by the Blessed One, take recourse in the Blessed One. It would be good
if the Blessed One would clear up the meaning of this statement. Hav-
ing heard it from him, the monks will remember it."
"Then listen and attend closely, monks, I will speak."
"Yes, venerable sir," the monks replied. The Blessed One said this:
"The Tathagata, monks, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One,
is the originator of the path unarisen before, the producer of the path
unproduced before, the declarer of the path undeclared before. He is
the knower of the path, the discoverer of the path, the one skilled in the
path. And his disciples now dwell following that path and become
possessed of it afterward.
"This, monks, is the distinction, the disparity, the difference between
the Tathagata, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One, and a monk
liberated by wisdom."
(SN 22:58; III 65-66)
(2) For the Welfare of Many
"Monks, these three persons arise in the world for the welfare of the
multitude, for the happiness of the multitude, out of compassion for
the world, for the good, welfare, and happiness of devas and humans.
What three?
"Here, monks, a Tathagata arises in the world, an arahant, perfectly
enlightened ... teacher of devas and humans, the Enlightened One,
the Blessed One. He teaches the Dhamma that is good at the begin-
ning, good in the middle, good at the end, with the right meaning
and phrasing; he reveals the spiritual life that is utterly perfect and
pure. This, monks, is the first person that arises in the world for the
welfare of the multitude, for the happiness of the multitude, out of
The Planes of Realization 415
compassion for the world, for the good, welfare, and happiness of
devas and humans.
"Then, monks, a disciple of that teacher is an arahant with taints
destroyed [as in Text X,l(3), §42} ... completely liberated through final
knowledge. He teaches the Dhamma that is good at the beginning ...
he reveals the spiritual life that is utterly perfect and pure. This, monks,
is the second person that arises in the world for the welfare of the mul-
titude, for the happiness of the multitude, out of compassion for the
world, for the good, welfare, and happiness of devas and humans.
"Then, monks, a disciple of that teacher is a trainee practicing the
path, learned and endowed with precepts and observances. He too
teaches the Dhamma that is good at the beginning ... he reveals the
spiritual life that is utterly perfect and pure. This, monks, is the third
person that arises in the world for the welfare of the multitude, for the
happiness of the multitude, out of compassion for the world, for the
good, welfare, and happiness of devas and humans.
"These, monks, are the three persons that arise in the world for the
welfare of the multitude, for the happiness of the multitude, out of
compassion for the world, for the good, welfare, and happiness of
devas and humans."
(It 84; 78-79)
(3) Sariputta's Lofty Utterance
The Venerable Sariputta approached the Blessed One, paid homage to
him, sat down to one side, and said: "Venerable sir, I have such confi-
dence in the Blessed One that I believe there has not been, nor ever
will be, nor exists at present another ascetic or brahmin more knowl-
edgeable than the Blessed One with respect to enlightenment."
58
"Lofty indeed is this bellowing utterance of yours, Sariputta, you
have roared a definitive lion's roar. Have you now, Sariputta, encom-
passed with your mind the minds of all the Arahants, the Perfectly
Enlightened Ones, arisen in the past and known thus: 'Those Blessed
Ones were of such moral discipline, or of such qualities, or of such wis-
dom, or of such meditative dwellings, or of such liberation'?"
59
"No, venerable sir."
"Then, Sariputta, have you encompassed with your mind the minds
of all the Arahants, the Perfectly Enlightened Ones, who will arise in
416 In the Buddha's Words
the future and known thus: 'Those Blessed Ones will be of such moral
discipline, or of such qualities, or of such wisdom, or of such medita-
tive dwellings, or of such liberation'?"
"No, venerable sir."
"Then, Sariputta, have you encompassed with your mind my own
mind—I being at present the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One
and known thus: 'The Blessed One is of such moral discipline, or of
such qualities, or of such wisdom, or of such meditative dwellings, or
of such liberation'?"
"No, venerable sir."
"Sariputta, when you do not have any knowledge encompassing the
minds of the Arahants, the Perfectly Enlightened Ones of the past, the
future, and the present, why do you utter this lofty, bellowing utter-
ance and roar this definitive lion's roar: 'Venerable sir, I have such con-
fidence in the Blessed One that I believe there has not been, nor ever
will be, nor exists at present another ascetic or brahmin more knowl-
edgeable than the Blessed One with respect to enlightenment'?"
"I do not have, venerable sir, any knowledge encompassing the
minds of the Arahants, the Perfectly Enlightened Ones of the past, the
future, and the present, but still I have understood this by inference
from the Dhamma. Suppose, venerable sir, a king had a frontier city
with strong ramparts, walls, and arches, and a single gate. The gate-
keeper posted there would be wise, competent, and intelligent; one
who keeps out strangers and admits acquaintances. While he is walk-
ing along the path that encircles the city he would not see a cleft or an
opening in the walls even big enough for a cat to slip through. He
might think: 'Whatever large creatures enter or leave this city, all enter
and leave through this one gate.'
"So too, venerable sir, I have understood this by inference from the
Dhamma: Whatever Arahants, Perfectly Enlightened Ones arose in the
past, all those Blessed Ones had first abandoned the five hindrances,
defilements of the mind that weaken wisdom; and then, with their
minds well established in the four establishments of mindfulness,
developed correctly the seven factors of enlightenment; and thereby
they had awakened to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment. And,
venerable sir, whatever Arahants, Perfectly Enlightened Ones will arise
in the future, all those Blessed Ones will first abandon the five hin-
drances, defilements of the mind that weaken wisdom; and then, with
The Planes of Realization
their minds well established in the four establishments of mindfulness,
will develop correctly the seven factors of enlightenment; and thereby
they will awaken to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment. And, ven-
erable sir, the Blessed One, at present the Arahant, the Perfectly
Enlightened One, first abandoned the five hindrances, defilements of
the mind that weaken wisdom; and then, with his mind well estab-
lished in the four establishments of mindfulness, developed correctly
the seven factors of enlightenment; and thereby he has awakened to
the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment."
"Good, good, Sariputta! Therefore, Sariputta, you should repeat this
Dhamma exposition frequently to the monks and the nuns, to the male
lay followers and the female lay followers. Even though some foolish
people may have perplexity or uncertainty regarding the Tathagata,
when they hear this Dhamma exposition their perplexity or uncer-
tainty will be abandoned."
(SN 47:12; V 159-61)
(4) The Powers and Grounds of Self-Confidence
9. "Sariputta, the Tathagata has these ten Tathagata's powers, possess-
ing which he claims the place of the chief of the herd, roars his lion's
roar in the assemblies, and sets rolling the wheel of Brahma.
60
What
are the ten?
10. (1) "Here, the Tathagata correctly understands the possible as
possible and the impossible as impossible.
61
And that is a Tathagata's
power that the Tathagata has, by virtue of which he claims the place of
the chief of the herd, roars his lion's roar in the assemblies, and sets
rolling the wheel of Brahma.
11. (2) "Again, the Tathagata correctly understands the results of
actions undertaken, past, future, and present by way of possibilities
and causes. That too is a Tathagata's power.. ,
62
12. (3) "Again, the Tathagata correctly understands the ways leading
everywhere. That too is a Tathagata's power.. .
63
13. (4) "Again, the Tathagata correctly understands the world with
its many and different elements. That too is a Tathagata's power...
14. (5) "Again, the Tathagata correctly understands how beings have
different inclinations. That too is a Tathagata's power.. .**
15. (6) "Again, the Tathagata correctly understands the disposition of
418 In the Buddha's Words
the faculties of other beings, other persons. That too is a Tathagata's
power...
65
16. (7) "Again, the Tathagata correctly understands the defilement,
the cleansing, and the emergence in regard to the jhanas, liberations,
concentrations, and attainments. That too is a Tathagata's power...
66
17. (8) "Again, the Tathagata recollects his manifold past lives with
their aspects and particulars. That too is a Tathagata's power...
18. (9) "Again, with the divine eye, which is purified and surpasses
the human, the Tathagata sees beings passing away and being reborn,
inferior and superior, fair and ugly, fortunate and unfortunate, and he
understands how beings pass on according to their actions. That too is
a Tathagata's power...
19. (10) "Again, by realizing it for himself with direct knowledge,
the Tathagata in this present life enters upon and dwells in the libera-
tion of mind, liberation by wisdom, that is taintless with the destruc-
tion of the taints. That too is a Tathagata's power that the Tathagata
has, by virtue of which he claims the place of the leader of the herd,
roars his lion's roar in the assemblies, and sets rolling the wheel of
Brahma.
20. "The Tathagata has these ten Tathagata's powers, possessing
which he claims the place of the leader of the herd, roars his lion's roar
in the assemblies, and sets rolling the wheel of Brahma....
22. "Sariputta, the Tathagata has these four grounds of self-
confidence,
67
possessing which he claims the place of the leader of the
herd, roars his lion's roar in the assemblies, and sets rolling the wheel
of Brahma. What are the four?
23. "Here, I see no ground on which any ascetic or brahmin or deva
or Mara or Brahma or anyone else at all in the world could, in accor-
dance with the Dhamma, accuse me thus: 'While you claim to be per-
fectly enlightened, you are not perfectly enlightened about these
things.' And seeing no ground for that, I dwell in safety, fearlessness,
and self-confidence.
24. "I see no ground on which any ascetic ... or anyone at all could
accuse me thus: 'While you claim to be one who has destroyed the
taints, you have not destroyed these taints.' And seeing no ground for
that, I dwell in safety, fearlessness, and self-confidence.
25. "I see no ground on which any ascetic ... or anyone at all could
accuse me thus: 'Those things called obstructions by you are not able
Pi
to obstruct one who engages in them.' And seeing no ground for that,
I dwell in safety, fearlessness, and self-confidence.
26. "I see no ground on which any ascetic ... or anyone at all could
accuse me thus: 'When you teach the Dhamma to someone, it does not
lead him when he practices it to the complete destruction of suffering.'
And seeing no ground for that, I dwell in safety, fearlessness, and self-
confidence.
27. "A Tathagata has these four kinds of self-confidence, possessing
which he claims the place of the leader of the herd, roars his lion's roar
in the assemblies, and sets rolling the wheel of Brahma."
(from MN 12: Mahasihanada Sutta; 170-72)
(5) The Manifestation of Great Light
"Monks, so long as the sun and moon have not arisen in the world, for
just so long there is no manifestation of great light and radiance, but
then blinding darkness prevails, a dense mass of darkness; for just so
long day and night are not discerned, the month and fortnight are not
discerned, the seasons and the year are not discerned. But, monks,
when the sun and moon arise in the world, then there is the manifes-
tation of great light and radiance; then there is no blinding darkness,
no dense mass of darkness; then day and night are discerned, the
month and fortnight are discerned, the seasons and year are discerned.
"So too, monks, so long as a Tathagata has not arisen in the world,
an Arahant, a Perfectly Enlightened One, for just so long there is no
manifestation of great light and radiance, but then blinding darkness
prevails, a dense mass of darkness; for just so long there is no explain-
ing, teaching, proclaiming, establishing, disclosing, analyzing, or elu-
cidating of the Four Noble Truths. But, monks, when a Tathagata arises
in the world, an Arahant, a Perfectly Enlightened One, then there is
the manifestation of great light and radiance; then no blinding dark-
ness prevails, no dense mass of darkness; then there is the explaining,
teaching, proclaiming, establishing, disclosing, analyzing, and eluci-
dating of the Four Noble Truths."
(SN 56:38; V 442-43)
420 In the Buddha's Words
(6) The Man Desiring Our Good
25. "Suppose, monks, that in a wooded range there were a great low-
lying marsh near which a large herd of deer lived. Then a man
appeared desiring their ruin, harm, and bondage, and he closed off the
safe and good path to be traveled joyfully, and he opened up a false
path, and he put out a decoy and set up a dummy so that the large
herd of deer might later come upon calamity, disaster, and loss. But
another man came desiring their good, welfare, and protection, and
he reopened the safe and good path to be traveled joyfully, and he
closed off the false path, and he removed the decoy and destroyed the
dummy, so that the large herd of deer might later come to growth,
increase, and fulfillment.
26. "Monks, I have given this simile in order to convey a meaning.
This is the meaning: The great low-lying marsh' is a term for sensual
pleasures. 'The large herd of deer' is a term for beings. 'The man desir-
ing their ruin, harm, and bondage' is a term for Mara the Evil One.
'The false path' is a term for the wrong eightfold path, that is: wrong
view, wrong intention, wrong speech, wrong action, wrong livelihood,
wrong effort, wrong mindfulness, and wrong concentration. 'The
decoy' is a term for delight and lust. 'The dummy' is a term for igno-
rance. 'The man desiring their good, welfare, and protection' is a term
for the Tathagata, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One. 'The safe
and good path to be traveled joyfully' is a term for the Noble Eightfold
Path, that is: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right
livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.
"So, monks, the safe and good path to be traveled joyfully has been
reopened by me, the wrong path has been closed off, the decoy
removed, the dummy destroyed."
(from MN 19: Dvedhavitakka Sutta; 1117-18)
(7) The Lion
"Monks, in the evening the lion, the king of beasts, comes out from his
lair. He then stretches himself, surveys the four quarters all around,
and roars his lion's roar three times, after which he sets out in search
of game.
"When the lion, the king of beasts, roars its lion's roar, most of the
1 he Flanes of
animals that hear the sound are filled with fear, a sense of urgency, and
terror. Those who live in holes enter their holes; those who live in the
water enter the water; those who live in the woods enter the woods;
and the birds fly up into the air. Even those royal bull elephants, bound
by strong thongs in the villages, towns, and capital cities, burst and
break their bonds asunder; frightened, they urinate and defecate and
flee here and there. So powerful among the animals, monks, is the lion,
the king of beasts, so majestic and mighty.
"So too, monks, when the Tathagata arises in the world, an arahant,
perfectly enlightened, accomplished in true knowledge and conduct,
fortunate, knower of the world, unsurpassed leader of persons to be
tamed, teacher of devas and humans, the Enlightened One, the Blessed
One, he teaches the Dhamma thus: 'Such is form, such its origin, such
its passing away; such is feeling ... such is perception ... such are voli-
tional formations ... such is consciousness, such its origin, such its
passing away.'
"Then, monks, when those devas who are long-lived, beautiful,
abounding in happiness, dwelling for a long time in lofty palaces, hear
the Tathagata's teaching of the Dhamma, most
68
are filled with fear, a
sense of urgency, and terror, [saying]: 'It seems, though we thought our-
selves permanent, that we are impermanent; it seems, though we
thought ourselves stable, that we are unstable; it seems, though we
thought ourselves eternal, that we are transient. It seems, sir, that we are
impermanent, unstable, transient, included within identity.'
69
So pow-
erful, monks, is the Tathagata over this world together with its devas,
so majestic and mighty."
(SN 22:78: III 84-85)
(8) Why Is He Called the Tathagata?
"The world, monks, has been fully awakened to by the Tathagata; the
Tathagata is detached from the world. The origin of the world has been
fully awakened to by the Tathagata; the Tathagata has abandoned the
origin of the world. The cessation of the world has been fully awak-
ened to by the Tathagata; the Tathagata has realized the cessation of the
world. The way to the cessation of the world has been fully awakened
to by the Tathagata; the Tathagata has developed the way to the cessa-
tion of the world.
422 In the Buddha's Words
"In the world, monks, with its devas, with Mara, with Brahma, in
this population with its ascetics and brahmins, with its devas and
humans, whatever there is that is seen, heard, sensed, cognized,
reached, sought after, examined by the mind, all that has been awak-
ened to by the Tathagata; therefore he is called the Tathagata.
"From the night he fully awakened, monks, until the night he attains
final Nibbana, in this interval, whatever he speaks, talks of, and
expounds, all that is just so, not otherwise; therefore he is called the
Tathagata.
"As he speaks, monks, so he does; as he does, so he speaks. Since he
does as he speaks and speaks as he does, therefore he is called the
Tathagata.
"In this world, monks, with its devas, with Mara, with Brahma, in
this population with its ascetics and brahmins, with its devas and
humans, the Tathagata is the vanquisher, the unvanquished, the uni-
versal seer, the wielder of mastery; therefore he is called the Tathagata."
Having directly known all the world,
All in the world exactly as it is,
He is detached from all the world,
Unengaged with all the world.
He indeed is the all-vanquishing sage,
The one released from all the knots,
Who has reached the supreme state of peace,
Nibbana, without fear from any side.
He is the Buddha, with taints destroyed,
Untroubled, with all doubts cut off,
Who has attained the destruction of all kamma,
Liberated in the extinction of acquisitions.
He is the Blessed One, the Buddha,
He is the lion, unsurpassed,
In this world together with its devas,
He set in motion the wheel of Brahma.
The Planes of Realization 423
Thus those devas and human beings
Who have gone for refuge to the Buddha,
Having assembled, pay homage to him,
The great one free from diffidence.
'Tamed, he is supreme among those who tame;
At peace, he is the sage among those who bring peace;
Freed, he is the chief of those who set free;
Delivered, he is the best of those who deliver."
Thus indeed they pay homage to him,
The great one free from diffidence.
In this world together with its devas,
There is no one who can rival you.
(AN 4:23; II 23-24 = It 112; 121-23)
NOTES
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1. The exact years of the Buddha's life are still a matter of conjecture among schol-
ars. Until recently, the most commonly cited figures were 566-486 B.C.E., but in
recent years a growing number of Indologists have come to question these fig-
ures and the current preference is to place his death closer to 400 B.C.E.
2. See, e.g., MN 22.10 (1133). Some of the terms are obscure, and the commenta-
tors seem to strain to find ways to identify texts that come within their scope.
3. But even as lateas the age of the commentators (fifth century C.E.), the Thera-
vada tradition too called them Agamas as well as Nikayas.
4. The CuUavagga's account of the first council is at Vin II284-87. The rains retreat
(vassavasa) is a three-month period coinciding with the Indian rainy season
when Buddhist monks must refrain from wandering and remain at fixed resi-
dences. The retreat generally lasts from the day after the full-moon day of July
until the full-moon day of October.
5. See Nyanaponika and Hecker, Great Disciples of the Buddha, chapter 4.
6. In the Theravada tradition, the writing down of the canon occurred in Sri Lanka
in the first century B.C.E. At that time the monks, apprehensive that the orally
preserved teachings might be lost, collectively inscribed the texts on palm
leaves and bound these into volumes, the prototypes of books. Up to this point,
while individual texts might have been written down by monks as aids to
memory, officially recognized transcriptions of the teaching did not exist. On
the writing down of the canon, see Adikaram, Early History of Buddhism in Cey-
lon, p. 79; and Malalasekera, The Pali Literature of Ceylon, pp. 44^17. It is possi-
ble that in India canonical texts were written down even earlier than in Sri
Lanka.
7.
See, e.g., Thich Minh Chau, The Chinese Madhyama Agama and the Pali Majjhima
Nikaya; Choong Mun-keat (Wei-keat), The Fundamental Teachings of Early
Buddhism.
8. On the nature of Pali, see Norman, Pali Literature, pp. 2-7.
9. See Manne, "Categories of Sutta in the Pali Nikayas," esp. pp. 71-84.
10. The above information is derived from Choong, The Fundamental Teachings of
Early Buddhism, pp. 6-7.
CHAPTER I: THE HUMAN CONDITION
1. King Pasenadi was the ruler of the state of Kosala, whose capital was Savatthi.
Jetavana, the grove of Prince Jeta, was also known as Anathapindika's Park
because it was purchased for the Buddha by the wealthy philanthropist,
Anathapindika. The Nikayas depict Pasenadi as one of the Buddha's most
devoted lay followers, though they never show him as attaining any stage of
realization. An entire chapter of the Samyutta Nikaya—the Kosalasamyutta
(chapter 3)—records his conversations with the Buddha.
2. When speaking of the arahant, the Buddha does not describe his destiny as
"aging and death," but as a mere breaking up and discarding of the body. This
425
426 Notes to pages 26-34
is because the arahant, being free from all notions of "I" and "mine," does not
conceive the decay and dissolution of the body as the aging and death of an "I."
3. Devaduta. According to legend, while the Bodhisatta was still a prince living
in the palace, he encountered an old man, a sick man, and a corpse, sights he
had never seen before. These encounters shattered his worldly complacency
and stirred him to seek a way to liberation from suffering. The commentaries
say that these three figures were deities in disguise sent to awaken the Bodhi-
satta to his mission. Hence old age, illness, and death are called "divine mes-
sengers."
4. Yama is the legendary god of the underworld, who passes judgment on the
dead and assigns them to their future destiny. According to some accounts, he
does so merely by holding before the dead spirits a mirror which reflects back
their good and bad deeds.
5. The underlying tendencies (anusaya) are dispositions toward the defilements
that lie dormant in the mind and become active when provoked. Some texts,
such as the present one, mention three underlying tendencies: the tendency
to lust (raganusaya) for pleasant feeling; to aversion (patighanusaya) for
painful feeling; and to ignorance (avijjanusaya) in regard to neither-painful-
nor-pleasant feeling. Other texts mention seven underlying tendencies: to
sensual lust, aversion, views, doubt, conceit, attachment to existence, and
ignorance.
6. Spk: The escape is concentration, the path, and the fruit. He does not know
this; the only escape he knows is sensual pleasure.
7. These five terms constitute a major pattern for contemplation. "The origin and
the passing away" (samudaya, atthangama) point to the characteristic of imper-
manence. On the triad of gratification, danger, and escape (assada, adlnava, nis-
sarana), see pp. 186-87.
8. The sequel will make it clear that "the instructed noble disciple" being
described here is the arahant, who alone is entirely free from the tendencies to
aversion, lust, and ignorance. However, while the arahant alone may be capa-
ble of maintaining perfect equanimity toward physical pain, an ordinary prac-
titioner can still emulate the arahant by attempting to overcome dejection and
despondency when experiencing painful bodily feelings. Everyone with a body,
including the Buddha, is subject to bodily pain. A mark of spiritual maturity is
the ability to endure pain without being overwhelmed by it.
9. The noun paritassana is derived from the verb paritassati, which represents Skt
paritrsyati, "to crave, to thirst for"; it is connected etymologically with tanha,
craving. However, in Pali the verbal stem has become conflated with tasati = to
fear, to tremble, and thus its noun derivatives such as paritassana and paritasita
also acquire meanings derived from tasati. This convergence of meanings,
already evident in the Nikayas, is made explicit in the commentaries. I have
tried to capture both nuances by rendering the verb paritassati "to be agitated"
and the noun paritassana "agitation." Though Spk understands paritassana here
in the sense of craving, the text seems to be emphasizing bhaya-paritassana, "agi-
tation as fear."
10. The uninstructed worldling is one who lacks both doctrinal knowledge of the
Dhamma (underscored by the word akovida, "unskilled") and practical training
in the Dhamma (underscored by avinita, "undisciplined"). The worldling is not
a "seer of the noble ones," that is, of the Buddha and the noble disciples,
es w pages D^—DO <±^/
because he or she lacks the eye of wisdom that discerns the truth they have
seen. "Noble ones" (ariya) and "superior persons" (sappurisa) are synonyms.
The text here enumerates the twenty types of identity view (sakkayaditthi),
obtained by positing a self in four ways in relation to the five aggregates that
constitute personal identity (sakkaya). Identity view is one of the three fetters to
be eradicated at stream-entry, the first of the four stages of realization.
Spk: He regards form as self (rupam attato samanupassati), by regarding form
and the self as indistinguishable, just as the flame of an oil lamp and its color
are indistinguishable. He regards self as possessing form (riipavantam attanam),
when he takes the formless (i.e., the mind or mental factors) as a self that pos-
sesses form, in the way a tree possesses a shadow; form as in self(attani rupam),
when he takes the formless (mind) as a self within which form is situated, as the
scent is in a flower; self as inform (rupasmim attanam), when he takes the form-
less (mind) as a self situated in form, as a jewel is in a casket.
11. This noble disciple is presumably at minimum a stream-enterer.
12. Mahakaccana was the disciple who excelled in giving detailed analyses of the
Buddha's brief statements. For an account of his life and teachings, see
Nyanaponika and Hecker, Great Disciples of the Buddha, chapter 6.
13. Sakka, the ruler of the devas in the Tavatimsa heaven, was a follower of the
Buddha. See SN chapter 11.
14. Papancasannasahkha. The meaning of this obscure compound is not elucidated
in the Nikayas. The term seems to refer to perceptions and ideas that have
become "infected" by subjective biases, "elaborated" by the tendencies to crav-
ing, conceit, and distorted views. According to the commentaries, craving, con-
ceit, and views are the three factors responsible for conceptual elaboration
(papanca). A detailed study of the expression is Nanananda, Concept and Reality
in Early Buddhist Thought.
15. Sv: Pursuit (pariyesana) is the pursuit of objects such as visible forms, etc., and
gain (labha) is the gaining of such objects. Decision-making (vinicchaya) is decid-
ing how much to keep for oneself and how much to give to others; how much
to use and how much to store, etc.
16. Greed, hatred, and delusion (lobha, dosa, moha) are the three "unwholesome
roots"—the root causes of all mental defilements and unwholesome actions;
see p. 146.
17. Anamataggo 'yam bhikkhave samsaro. The original meaning of anamatagga is
uncertain. Spk glosses it as "having an unfindable beginning," explaining:
"Even if it should be pursued by knowledge for a hundred or a thousand years,
it would be with unfindable beginning, with unknown beginning. It wouldn't
be possible to know its beginning from here or from there; the meaning is that
it is without a delimiting first or last point. Samsara is the uninterruptedly
occurring succession of the aggregates."
18. Jambudipa. "The rose-apple land," the Indian subcontinent.
19. Kappa. Apparently a mahakappa, a "great eon," is intended, the length of time it
takes for a world system to arise, develop, and perish. Each mahakappa consists
of four asahkheyyakappas, individual periods of expansion, stabilization, con-
traction, and dissolution. For a discussion of early Buddhist cosmology, see
Gethin, The Foundations of Buddhism, pp. 112-15.
20. A yojana is approximately seven miles.
428 Notes to pages 43-56
CHAPTER II: THE BRINGER OF LIGHT
1. Suttanipata v. 335.
2. Although the bodhisattva ideal is usually understood to be distinctive of
Mahayana Buddhism, all the schools of Sectarian Buddhism in the period pre-
ceding the emergence of the Mahayana shared the belief that the Buddha pur-
sued the course of a bodhisattva over many eons, fulfilling the requirements for
Buddhahood. Mahayana's contribution was to advocate the bodhisattva career
as a prescriptive model for all Buddhist followers to pursue.
3. The "six things unsurpassed" {cha anuttariya) are explained at AN 6:130: the
unsurpassed sight (i.e., the sight of a Buddha or his disciple); the unsurpassed
hearing (i.e., hearing the Dhamma from a Buddha or his disciple); the unsur-
passed gain (i.e., the gain of faith in a Buddha or his disciple); the unsurpassed
training (i.e., training in the higher morality, higher mind, higher wisdom as
taught by a Buddha or his disciple); the unsurpassed service (i.e., service to a
Buddha or his disciple); the unsurpassed recollection (i.e., the recollection of a
Buddha or his disciple). The "four analytical knowledges" (catasso patisam-
bhida) are the analytical knowledges of meaning, doctrine, language, and inge-
nuity. The fruits of stream-entry, etc., are explained in chapter X.
4. As the Buddha's personal attendant, Ananda was known for his personal ded-
ication to his master. In the main portion of the sutta, where he articulates the
traditional beliefs about the wonders accompanying the Buddha's conception
and birth, he seems to represent the voice of faithful devotion.
5. This refers to the Bodhisatta's rebirth in the Tusita heaven, which preceded his
birth in the human world as Gotama the future Buddha.
6. Ps: Between every three world systems there is an interstice measuring 8,000
yojanas; it is like the space between three wagon wheels or almsbowls touching
one another. The beings who live there have taken rebirth there because of com-
mitting some terrible offence against their parents or righteous ascetics and
brahmins, or because of some habitual evil deed like killing animals, etc.
7. Ps: The four deities were the Four Great Kings (i.e., the presiding deities of the
heaven of the Four Great Kings).
8. Ps explains each aspect of this event as a foretoken of the Buddha's later attain-
ments. Thus, his standing with his feet (pada) firmly on the ground was a fore-
token of his attaining the four bases for spiritual power (iddhipada); his facing
the north, of his going above and beyond the multitude; his seven steps, of his
acquiring the seven enlightenment factors; the white parasol, of his acquiring
the parasol of liberation; his surveying the quarters, of his acquiring the unob-
structed knowledge of omniscience; his uttering the words of the "leader of
the herd" (an epithet for an eminent person), of his setting in motion the irre-
versible wheel of the Dhamma; his statement "This is my last birth," of his
passing away into the Nibbana element with no residue remaining (see Text
IX,5(5)).
9. This statement seems to be the Buddha's way of calling attention to the qual-
ity he regarded as the true wonder and marvel.
10. In the unabridged version of this text, gold and silver are excluded from the
things subject to sickness, death, and sorrow, but they are subject to defilement,
according to Ps, because they can be alloyed with metals of lesser worth.
11. Akihcahnayatana. This is the third formless meditative attainment; preceded by
the four jhanas, it is the seventh of the eight attainments (samapatti) in the scale
Notes to pages 57-68 429
of concentration. These attainments, though spiritually exalted, are still mun-
dane and, divorced from insight, are not directly conducive to Nibbana.
12. That is, it leads to rebirth in the plane of existence called the base of nothing-
ness, the objective counterpart of the seventh meditative attainment. Here the
lifespan is said to be 60,000 eons, but when that has elapsed one must pass
away and return to a lower world. Thus one who attains this is still not free
from birth and death.
13. N'eva sannanasannayatana. This is the fourth and highest formless attainment.
It should be noted that Uddaka Ramaputta is Rama's son (putta), not Rama
himself. The text gives the impression that while Rama had attained the base
of neither-perception-nor-nonperception, Uddaka himself had not done so. The
attainment of this base leads to rebirth in the base of neither-perception-nor-
nonperception, the highest plane of rebirth in samsara. The lifespan there is
said to be 84,000 eons, but being conditioned and impermanent, it is still ulti-
mately unsatisfactory.
14. Text 11,3(2) continues from this point with an extended account of the Bodhi-
satta's extreme ascetic practices followed by his discovery of the middle way.
15. Saccaka was a debater whom, on an earlier occasion, the Buddha had defeated
in a discussion. Aggivessana, the name by which the Buddha addresses him
just below, is probably his clan name. The present discourse begins with a dis-
cussion about pleasant and painful feeling, which gives the cue for Saccaka to
pose these questions to the Buddha.
16. It is puzzling that in the following paragraphs the Bodhisatta is shown engag-
ing in self-mortification after he comes to the conclusion—in this passage—that
such practices are useless for the attainment of enlightenment. This anomaly
raises a suspicion that the narrative sequence of the sutta has become jumbled.
The appropriate place for the simile of the fire-sticks, it seems, would be at the
end of the Bodhisatta's period of ascetic experimentation, when he has acquired
a sound basis for rejecting self-mortification as a way to enlightenment.
17. This sentence, repeated at the end of each of the following sections as well,
answers the second of the two questions posed by Saccaka in §11.
18. Ps explains that when the Bodhisatta was a child, his father brought him along
to attend the ceremonial plowing festival of the Sakyans. The young prince's
attendants left him under a rose-apple tree and went to watch the plowing cer-
emony. Finding himself all alone, the Bodhisatta spontaneously sat up in the
meditation posture and attained the first jhana through mindfulness of breath-
ing. Though the sun moved, the shade of the tree remained over the Bodhi-
satta. When the attendants returned and found the boy seated in meditation,
they reported this to the king, who came and bowed in veneration to his son.
19. This sentence answers the first of the two questions posed by Saccaka in §11.
This passage shows a change in the Bodhisatta's evaluation of pleasure. When
pleasure arises from seclusion and detachment, it is no longer something to be
feared and banished by the practice of austerities but becomes an adjunct of the
higher stages along the path to enlightenment.
20. In the usual formula of dependent origination, consciousness is said to be con-
ditioned by volitional formations (sankharapaccaya vinnanam). This variant
reveals the interplay of consciousness and name-and-form to be the "hidden
vortex" underlying all existence within the round of rebirths.
21. Spk: "To this extent one may be born, age, and die: With consciousness as a condition
430 Notes to pages 68-75
for name-and-form, and with name-and-form as a condition for consciousness,
to this extent one may be born and undergo rebirth. What is there beyond this
that can be born or undergo rebirth? Isn't it just this that is born and undergoes
rebirth?"
22. Note that the Buddha discovers the path to enlightenment by realizing the ces-
sation of consciousness, name-and-form, and the other links of dependent orig-
ination. Cessation is realized with the experience of Nibbana, the deathless
element.
23. At this point the text introduces volitional formations. Its principal condition
is ignorance, and thus by mentioning its origin, ignorance too is implied. In
this way, all twelve factors of the usual formula of dependent origination are
included, at least by implication.
24. Alaya. The word signifies both the objects of clinging and the subjective attitude
of clinging.
25. By mentioning these two themes—dependent origination and Nibbana—in his
reflections immediately after his enlightenment, the Buddha underscores their
importance for understanding the content of his enlightenment. The enlighten-
ment thus involved a comprehension, first, of the dependent origination of suf-
fering, and second, of Nibbana as the state of ultimate liberation that transcends
all phenomena involved in the dependent origination of suffering. The Buddha
first had to comprehend dependent origination, and only when he had done so
could he arrive at the realization of Nibbana. The "acquisitions" (upadhi) that
are relinquished can be understood as twofold: in terms of the object, as the five
aggregates or, more broadly, as all objects of appropriation; and subjectively, as
the craving that motivates acts of appropriation.
26. Ps raises the question why, when the Bodhisatta had long ago made an aspira-
tion to attain Buddhahood in order to liberate others, his mind now inclined
toward inaction. The reason, it says, is that only now, after becoming enlight-
ened, did he recognize how profound the Dhamma was and how difficult it
would be for those with strong defilements to understand it. Also, he wanted
Brahma to ask him to teach so that people who venerate Brahma would respect
the Dhamma and wish to hear it.
27. These five monks attended on the Bodhisatta during his period of self-
mortification, convinced that he would attain enlightenment and teach them
the Dhamma. However, when he abandoned his austerities and resumed tak-
ing solid food, they lost faith in him and deserted him, accusing him of revert-
ing to luxury. See Text 11,3(2).
28. Anantajina: perhaps this was an epithet used by the Ajivakas for the spiritually
perfected individual.
29. Avuso: a familiar term of address used among equals.
30. The change in address from "friend" (avuso) to "venerable sir" (bhante) indicates
that they have now accepted the Buddha's claim and are prepared to regard
him as their superior.
31. At this point the Buddha preached to them his first sermon, the Dhamma-
cakkappavattana Sutta, "The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dhamma"; see
Text 11,5. Several days later, after they had all become stream-enterers, he taught
them the Anattalakkhana Sutta, "The Characteristic of Nonself," upon hearing
which they all attained arahantship; see Text IX,4(l)(c). The complete narra-
tive is at Vin I 7-14. See Nanamoli, The Life of the Buddha, p. 47.
Notes to pages 76-89 431
32. The first section under the exposition of each noble truth simply reveals the
knowledge of the truth itself (saccanana).
33. The second section under the exposition of each noble truth reveals the knowl-
edge of the task to be accomplished with regard to that truth (kiccahana). The
first noble truth is to be fully understood (parihheyya), the second to be aban-
doned (pahatabba), the third to be realized (sacchikatabba), and the fourth to be
developed (bhavetabba).
34. The third section under the exposition of each noble truth reveals the knowl-
edge of the completion of the task appropriate to that truth (katanana). The first
noble truth has been fully understood (parihhata), the second has been aban-
doned (pahina), the third has been realized (sacchikata), and the fourth has been
developed (bhaveta).
35. The three phases (tiparivatta) are: (i) the knowledge of each truth; (ii) the knowl-
edge of the task to be achieved regarding that truth; and (iii) the knowledge that
this task has been completed. The twelve modes (dvadasakara) are obtained by
applying the three phases to the four truths.
36. This stock formulation implies that on this occasion, Kondanna attained the
first stage of enlightenment, stream-entry.
37. These are the devas of the six sense-sphere heavenly worlds and the brahma
world.
CHAPTER III: APPROACHING THE DHAMMA
1. Among the criteria he proposes is the opinion of the wise, which shows that
far from rejecting the opinions of others, the Buddha includes the opinions of
the right sort of person among the standards for determining proper conduct.
Other suttas tell us how we can judge who is truly wise; see Text 111,4 and
Text 111,5.
2. Mp explains that this town was located at the edge of a forest. Various groups
of wanderers and ascetics would stop there to spend the night before crossing
the forest. During their stay they would give talks to the Kalamas, and the
Kalamas were thus exposed to a wide range of philosophical theories. The con-
flicts between the different views caused them doubt and perplexity.
3. The above is a stock passage in the Nikayas.
4. These ten inadequate criteria of truth can be grouped into three classes: (1) The
first comprises the first four criteria, all positions based on reverence for tradi-
tion. Of these, (i) "oral tradition" (anussava) refers to the Vedic tradition, which,
according to the brahmins, had originated with the primal deity and came
down orally through successive generations, (ii) "Lineage" (parampara) signifies
an unbroken succession of teachings or teachers, (iii) "Hearsay" (or "report,"
itikira) may mean popular opinion or general consensus. And (iv) "a collection
of texts" (pitakasampada) refers to religious texts regarded as infallible. (2) The
second set, also made up of four terms, is comprised of four types of reasoning
recognized by thinkers in the Buddha's age; their differences need not detain
us here. (3) The third set, made up of the last two items, refers to two types of
personal authority: (i) the personal charisma of the speaker (perhaps including
his external qualifications, e.g., that he is highly educated, has a large follow-
ing, is respected by the king, etc.); and (ii) the speaker's status as one's own per-
sonal teacher (the Pali word gam is identical with the Sanskrit guru). For a
432 Notes to pages 89-97
detailed analysis, see Jayatilleke, Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, pp.
175-202,271-75.
5. Greed, hatred, and delusion are the three unwholesome roots. The aim of the
Buddha's teaching, Nibbana, is defined as the destruction of greed (or lust),
hatred, and delusion. Thus the Buddha is guiding the Kalamas toward the heart
of his teaching.
6. Here the Buddha introduces the four divine abodes (brahmavihara): boundless
loving-kindness, compassion, altruistic joy, and equanimity.
7. Mp: Because he does no evil and because no evil (i.e., suffering) will come
to him.
8. This is a stock passage. "Going for refuge" is the act by which a new convert
acknowledges the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sahgha as guiding ideals. In
Buddhist tradition, it has become the procedure by which one formally declares
oneself a Buddhist.
9. Gamani. The word suggests that he is a person of some prominence in the town.
10. Note that the headman here ascribes to the Buddha, as a direct quotation, a
general statement of the causal relationship between desire and suffering not
found in the Buddha's words above. The statement is, however, clearly needed
as the referent of "this principle" (imina dhammena). It is thus possible that the
statement was in the original text but had dropped out in the course of its oral
transmission. Just below the Buddha does make the generalization himself.
11. Read, with Be and Ce, ajanantena, as against Ee's ajanantena. The negative is
clearly required here, since the monk who cannot directly know the Buddha's
mind must infer from his bodily and verbal behavior that he is fully purified.
12. "States cognizable through the eye" are bodily actions; "states cognizable
through the ear" are words.
13. "Mixed states" would mean the conduct of one who is trying to purify his
behavior but is unable to do so consistently. Sometimes his conduct is pure,
sometimes impure.
14. Ps: The dangers are conceit, arrogance, etc. For some monks are calm and hum-
ble as long as they have not become well known and popular; but when they
become famous and popular, they go about acting improperly, attacking other
monks like a leopard pouncing on a herd of deer.
15. Ps: This statement shows the Buddha's impartiality. He does not extol some
and disparage others.
16. So tasmim dhammeabhinnaya idh'ekaccam dhammam dhammesu nittham gacchati. In
order to convey the intended meaning I have rendered the second occurrence
of dhamma here as "teaching," i.e., the particular doctrine taught to him, the
plural dhammesu as "teachings," and tasmim dhamme as "that Dhamma," in the
sense of the total teaching. Ps and Ps-pt together explain the meaning thus:
"When the Dhamma has been taught by the Master, the monk, by directly
knowing the Dhamma through penetration of the path, fruit, and Nibbana,
comes to a conclusion regarding the preliminary teaching of the Dhamma about
the aids to enlightenment (bodhipakkhiya dhamma)."
17. This refers to the faith of a noble person (ariyapuggala), who has seen the
Dhamma and thus can never acknowledge any teacher other than the Buddha.
18. He was a prominent brahmin who ruled over Opasada, a crown property in the
state of Kosala that had been granted to him by King Pasenadi.
19. Apparently this is Kapathika's clan name.
20. These are the ancient rishis whom the brahmins regarded as the divinely
inspired authors of the Vedic hymns.
21. In Pali: saddha, ruci, anussava, akaraparivitakka, ditthinijjhanakkhanti. Of these five
grounds for arriving at a conviction, the first two seem to be based primarily
on emotion, the third to be an unquestioning acceptance of tradition, and the
last two primarily rational or cognitive. The last three are included among the
ten unacceptable grounds for a belief in Text 111,2. The "two different ways"
that each may turn out are true or false.
22. It is not proper for him to come to this conclusion because he has not person-
ally ascertained the truth of his conviction but only accepts it on a ground that
is not capable of yielding certainty.
23. Saccanurakkhana: or, the safeguarding of truth, the protection of truth.
24. Saccanubodha: or, the awakening to truth.
25. In this series, "he scrutinizes" (tuleti), according to Ps, means that he investi-
gates phenomena as impermanent, suffering, and nonself. This is the stage of
insight contemplation. "Applies the will" (ussahati) and "strives" (padahati)
appear similar. We might understand the former as the effort leading to insight,
the latter as the effort that leads from insight to world-transcending realiza-
tion. This last step is signified by the expression, "he realizes with the body the
supreme truth." The supreme truth (paramasacca) is Nibbana.
26. While the "discovery of truth" (saccanubodha) in this context seems to mean the
attainment of stream-entry, the final arrival at truth (saccanuppatti) must mean
the attainment of arahantship. Note that the final arrival at truth does not come
about through any new measures, but simply through the repeated develop-
ment of those same factors that led to the discovery of truth.
27. Ps: The brahmins believed that they themselves were the offspring of Brahma's
mouth, the khattiyas of his breast, the mercantile class {vessa) of his belly, the
workers (sudda) of his legs, and samanas of the soles of his feet.
CHAPTER IV: THE HAPPINESS VISIBLE IN THIS PRESENT LIFE
1. As the standard for the wheel-turning monarch, Dhamma is not the Buddha's
teaching but the moral law of justice and righteousness on the basis of which
the righteous king rules his country and gains sovereignty over the world. In
Indian iconography, the wheel (cakka) is the symbol of sovereignty in both
the temporal and spiritual spheres. The world ruler assumes kingship when
the mystical "wheel treasure" (cakkaratana) appears to him (see Text IV,6(5));
the wheel treasure persists as the symbol of his rule. Analogously, the Buddha
sets in motion the wheel of the Dhamma, which cannot be turned back by
anyone in the world.
2. Compare with the shout of the devas at the conclusion of Text 11,5.
3. The householder Nakulapita and the housewife Nakulamata were the fore-
most of the Buddha's lay disciples with regard to their trust in him. See Nyana-
ponika and Hecker, Great Disciples of the Buddha, pp. 375-78.
4. Anathapindika was the Buddha's foremost male lay supporter. See Nyana-
ponika and Hecker, Great Disciples of the Buddha, chapter 9.
5. Dflsi: literally, a female slave. Fortunately, in Buddhist societies this recommen-
dation has not been taken very seriously and the first three models of the ideal
wife have prevailed.
434 Notes to pages 128-48
6. Visakha was the Buddha's foremost female lay supporter. The Eastern Park
was the monastery she had built for the Buddha in the eastern part of Savatthi.
7. This argument is intended to refute the brahmins' claim that they are born from
the mouth of Brahma.
8. Yona is probably the Greek colony of Bactria, in modern Afghanistan and Pak-
istan. Greeks lived and ruled here after the conquests of Alexander the Great.
Kamboja is probably to the northwest of the Indian "Middle Country."
9. King Ajatasattu had come to power by killing his father, the virtuous king Bim-
bisara, a supporter of the Buddha who had attained stream-entry the first stage
of liberation. Ajatasattu later felt remorse for his heinous deed and, after hear-
ing the Buddha teach the Samanhaphala Sutta (DN 2), became his follower.
The Vajjian confederacy, north of Magadha, on the other side of the river
Ganges, consisted of the Licchavis of Vesali and the Vedehis (of Videha—to
whom Ajatasattu's mother belonged), whose capital was Mithila.
10. The uposatha is the day of religious observance in the Indian lunar calendar. It
falls on the days of the full moon (the fifteenth of the fortnight), the new moon
(the fourteenth or fifteenth of the fortnight), and the two half-moons. The
"uposatha day of the fifteenth" referred to here is probably the full-moon
uposatha.
11. I correct an error in Walshe's translation here. Walshe translates as if the virtu-
ous ascetics and brahmins should come to the king to ask for his guidance in
what is wholesome and unwholesome. The Pali text, however, is clear that it is
the king who should approach the virtuous ascetics and brahmins to ask for
their guidance.
12. Yathabhuttan ca bhunjatha. The Pali means literally "eat the food as it has been
eaten," but this seems to be the implication. Walshe's "Be moderate in eating"
cannot be correct.
13. Piirohita. He was a brahmin who served as an advisor on both religious and
temporal affairs.
CHAPTER V: THE WAY TO A FORTUNATE REBIRTH
1. Cetana 'ham bhikkhave kammam vadami, cetayitvd kammam karoti kayena vacaya
manasa (AN III 415).
2. The distinction seems to be lightly drawn in the sutta literature, but in the com-
mentaries it becomes hardened into a precise delimitation between the three
types of results any kamma may produce.
3. For the distinction between these two types of right view, see MN 117 (not
included in this anthology). In the technical terminology of the Pali commen-
tators, even the insight into the three characteristics (impermanence, suffering,
nonself) and knowledge of the originative aspect of dependent origination are
still mundane (lokiya) because their objects are mundane phenomena. In the
commentarial system, only the direct cognition of the unconditioned, Nibbana,
is classified as supramundane right view. However, I here use the terms "supra-
mundane" and "world-transcending" (lokuttara) in a broader sense, as referring
to the knowledge and view (and, more broadly, to all practices) that lead to the
transcending of the world.
4. For a fuller discussion of the psychological basis of Early Buddhist cosmology,
see Gethin, The Foundations of Buddhism, pp. 119-26.
to pages 148-bz
5. Respectively, dasa akusala kammapatha and dasa kusala kammapatha. In the
Nikayas, the latter occurs at AN V 57; both are at DN III 269.
6. Buddhist texts of a somewhat later date than the oldest strata of the canon add
a fourth bad destination, the realm of the asuras. In the old canon, the asuras are
depicted as titanic beings engaged in perpetual conflict with the devas but are
not assigned to a separate realm. Since their living conditions, as described in
the canon, can hardly be called unbearably miserable, the commentators iden-
tify the asuras that constitute the fourth bad destination—not with the asuras
who battle against the devas—but with a class of beings in the realm of afflicted
spirits. Needless to say, the picture of the realms that emerges when the asuras
are considered distinct becomes somewhat blurred: if they are the beings who
fight against the devas, they aren't depicted as living in abject misery; if they
are a class of beings in the spirit realm, there seems no reason to treat them as
a separate realm.
7. I here describe the spheres of rebirth corresponding to the fourth jhana in accor-
dance with the cosmology of scholastic Theravada Buddhism. Other schools of
Early Buddhism—based on texts parallel to the Nikayas—divided up the ter-
rain of the fourth jhana realms somewhat differently.
8. The community of noble disciples consists of four pairs of persons, those who
have entered the four paths and those who have realized the four fruits. See
p. 373.
9. Subhakinha deva. These are the deities inhabiting the highest plane of rebirth
corresponding to the third jhana.
10. AN 4:235 explains this as the development of the Noble Eightfold Path; AN
4:236, as the development of the seven enlightenment factors.
11. This is a morally nihilistic materialist view that denies an afterlife and the
fruits of kamma. "There is nothing given" means there is no fruit of giving;
"no this world, no other world," no rebirth into either this world or a world
beyond; "no mother, no father," no fruit of good and bad conduct toward
parents. The statement about ascetics and brahmins denies the existence of
Buddhas and arahants.
12. Ps says that "the devas of radiance" is not a separate class of devas but a col-
lective name for the three classes that follow; the same for "the devas of glory."
13. It should be noted that while "conduct in accordance with the Dhamma" as
described in the sutta is a necessary condition for rebirth in the higher heavenly
worlds and for the destruction of the taints, it is by no means a sufficient con-
dition. Rebirth into the realms beginning with the devas of Brahma's retinue
requires the attainment of jhana, rebirth into the pure abodes (the five begin-
ning with the aviha devas) requires the attainment of the stage of nonreturner.
Rebirth into the formless planes requires the corresponding formless attain-
ments, and the destruction of the taints requires the full practice of the Noble
Eightfold Path up to the path of arahantship.
14. Ps: If the kamma of killing directly determines the mode of rebirth, it will pro-
duce rebirth in a bad destination. But if a wholesome kamma brings about a
human rebirth—and rebirth as a human being is always the result of whole-
some kamma—the kamma of killing will operate in a manner contrary to that
of the rebirth-generative kamma by causing various adversities that may cul-
minate in a premature death. The same principle holds for the subsequent cases
in which unwholesome kamma matures in a human existence: in each instance,
436 Notes to pages 162-96
the unwholesome kamma counteracts the wholesome kamma responsible for
the human rebirth by causing a particular type of misfortune specific to itself.
15. In this case the wholesome kamma of abstaining from killing is directly respon-
sible for either the heavenly rebirth or longevity in a human existence. The
same principle applies in all the passages on the maturation of wholesome
kamma.
16. This means that the act of giving is not sufficient to obtain the desired result. It
must be supported by pure moral conduct. For one of persistent immoral con-
duct, generosity would not suffice to bring a favorable rebirth.
17. This is said because rebirth into the brahma world—and into other planes in the
form realm—is achieved through attainment of the jhanas, which requires the
suppression of sensual lust.
18. On the uposatha, see p. 153.
19. The "proper time" for meals, according to the monastic and uposatha precepts,
is between daybreak and noon. From noon on, solid foods as well as certain
nourishing liquids (such as milk) cannot be consumed. Fruit juices, soft drinks,
tea, herbal teas, and other light drinks are allowed.
20. These are the states of the Indian subcontinent and the adjacent regions.
21. Ps explains limiting action (pamamkatam kammam) as kamma pertaining to the
sense sphere (kamavacara). It is opposed by a limitless or immeasurable action,
namely, the jhanas and formless attainments. In this case, the brahma.vih.aras devel-
oped to the level of jhana are intended. When a jhana or formless attainment is
mastered, a kamma pertaining to the sense sphere cannot find the opportunity
to yield its own result. Rather, the kamma pertaining to the form realm or the
formless realm overpowers the sense-sphere kamma and produces its results. A
brahmavihara that has been mastered leads to rebirth in the brahma world.
22. A "person possessed of right view" (ditthisampanna paggala) is a stream-enterer.
The stream-enterer and those who reach higher attainments will be discussed
in chapter X.
23. A paccekabuddha is one who, like a Perfectly Enlightened Buddha, attains
enlightenment without the guidance of a teacher, but unlike a Buddha is unable
to guide others to enlightenment. According to commentarial tradition, pac-
cekabuddhas do not arise while the teaching of a Perfectly Enlightened Buddha
exists in the world but only in the periods between the arising of Buddhas.
CHAPTER VI: DEEPENING ONE'S PERSPECTIVE ON THE WORLD
1. Ps: "Full understanding" (parinna) here means overcoming (samatikkama) or
abandoning (pahana). The wanderers of other sects identify the full understand-
ing of sensual pleasures with the first jhana, the full understanding of form with
formless existence [the formless planes corresponding to the formless medita-
tive attainments], and the full understanding of feelings with nonpercipient
existence [a plane of existence in which perception is temporarily suspended].
The Buddha, on the other hand, describes the full understanding of sensual
pleasures as the path to the stage of nonreturner, and the full understanding of
both form and feelings as the path to arahantship.
2. Note that while the previous dangers in sensual pleasures were called "a mass
of suffering in this present life" (sanditthiko dukkhakkhandho), this one is called
"a mass of suffering in the life to come" (samparayiko dukkhakkhandho).
ves lyy—^-ou <±o/
3. Voharasamuccheda. Vohara ;an mean business transactions, designation, speech,
and intentions. Ps says all four are relevant, since he thinks he has given up the
business, designation, speech, and intentions of a householder.
4. Ps explains the "equanimity that is diversified, based on diversity" as that
related to the five cords of sensual pleasure; the "equanimity that is unified,
based on unity" as that bised on the fourth jhana.
5. Magandiya was a philosophical hedonist who held that one should allow the
five senses to enjoy their -espective objects. He criticized the Buddha for advo-
cating restraint and control of the senses. The Buddha is about to demonstrate
the defects in sensual enjoyment.
6. Ps glosses nippurisa, "none male," as meaning that they were all women. Not
only the musicians, but al posts in the palace, including the door-keepers, were
filled by women. His father had provided him with three palaces and the
entourage of women in topes of keeping him confined to the lay life and dis-
tracting him from thoughts of renunciation.
7. Ps: This is said referring to the attainment of the fruit of arahantship (arahatta-
phala-samapatti) based or the fourth jhana.
8. The "Grove of Delight" h the Tavatimsa heaven.
9. The expression vipantasama alludes to the "distorted perception" of perceiving
pleasure in what is reall) painful. AN 4:49 speaks of four distortions of percep-
tion (sannavipallasa): perceiving the unattractive as attractive, the impermanent
as permanent, the painful as pleasurable, and the selfless as a self. Sensual
pleasures are painful because they arouse the painful defilements and because
they bring painful fruitsin the future.
10. What is intended here by wrong view (miccha ditthi) are views that deny the
foundations of morality, especially those views that reject a principle of moral
causation or the efficacy of volitional effort.
11. Forest-dwelling and the rest are among the ascetic practices permitted by the
Buddha. On the ten fetters, see pp. 374-75. Spk says that some among them
were stream-enterers, seme once-returners, and some nonreturners. None were
worldlings, and none were arahants.
12. This means the attainment of arahantship.
CHAPTER VII: THE PATH TO LIBERATION
1. Among these ten views, those that entertain ideas about the world (loka) are
also implicitly entertaming similar ideas about the self (atta). Thus the first pair
is the antithesis of etenalism and annihilationism. The view that the soul is
the same as the body is materialism, a type of annihilationism; the view that the
soul and the body are dfferent is eternalism. The view that a Tathagata—a lib-
erated person—exists after death is eternalism; the view that he does not exist
after death is annihilatbnism. The view that he both exists and does not exist
is a syncretic doctrine combining features of eternalism and annihilationism;
the view that he neithe" exists nor does not exist is skepticism or agnosticism,
which denies that we cm determine his condition after death. All these views,
from the Buddhist perspective, presuppose that the Tathagata presently exists
as a self. They thus begin with an erroneous premise and differ only in so far
as they posit the fate oi the self in different ways.
438 Notes to pages 233-49
2. Those who have always wondered about the fate of the monk who almost left
the Buddha to satisfy his metaphysical curiosity will be relieved to know that
in his old age Malurikyaputta received a brief discourse on the six sense bases
from the Buddha, went into retreat, and attained arahantship. See SN 35:95.
3. Devadatta was the Buddha's ambitious cousin, who attempted to kill the
Buddha and usurp control of the Sahgha. When these attempts failed, he broke
away and tried to establish his own sect with himself at the head. See
Nanamoli, Life of the Buddha, pp. 266-69.
4. Ps: "Knowledge and vision" (nanadassana) here refers to the divine eye, the
ability to see subtle forms invisible to normal vision.
5. This translation follows Be and Ce, which read asamayavimokkham in the preced-
ing sentence and asamayavimuttiya in this sentence. Ee seems to be mistaken in
reading samaya in the two compounds and thanam instead oiatthdnam. Ps cites
the Patisambhidamagga for a definition of asamayavimokkha (lit., non-temporary
or "perpetual" emancipation) as the four paths, four fruits, and Nibbana, and
of samayavimokkha (temporary emancipation) as the four jhanas and four form-
less attainments. See also MN 122.4.
6. Ps says that "unshakable liberation of mind" (akuppa cetovimutti) is the fruit of
arahantship. Thus "perpetual emancipation"—as including all four paths and
fruits—has a wider range than "unshakable liberation of mind." The latter
alone is declared to be the goal of the holy life.
7. Ragaviragattham. This might also have been rendered, somewhat awkwardly,
"For the dispassioning of passion," or "For the delusting of lust."
8. Spk: When he was in seclusion, Ananda thought, "This practice of a monk suc-
ceeds for one who relies on good friends and on his own virile effort; thus half
depends on good friends and half on one's own virile effort."
9. Vacchayana is Pilotika's clan name.
10. See p. 436 (chapter V, n.19).
11. The signs (nimitta) are the prominent qualities of the object which, when
grasped unmindfully, can instigate defiled thoughts; the features (anubyanjana)
are the details that attract one's attention when one does not restrain the senses.
"Longing and dejection" (abhijjha-domanassa) implies the opposed reactions of
desire and aversion, attraction and repulsion, toward sense objects.
12. Here, longing (abhijjha) is synonymous with sensual desire (kamacchanda), the
first of the five hindrances. This entire passage deals with the overcoming of the
five hindrances.
13. He does not come to such a conclusion because the jhanas, as well as the first
two higher knowledges (to follow), are not unique to the Buddha's teaching.
14. According to Ps, this shows the occasion of the supramundane path. Since at
this point the noble disciple has still not completed his task, he has not yet
come to a conclusion (na tveva nittham gato hoti) about the Three Jewels; rather,
he is in the process of coming to a conclusion {nittham gacchati). The sutta puns
on the meaning of the expression "coming to a conclusion" in a way that is just
as viable in English as in Pali.
15. Ps: This shows the occasion when the disciple has attained the fruit of ara-
hantship, and having entirely completed his task, has come to a conclusion
about the Three Jewels.
pages zby-bs
CHAPTER VIII: MASTERING THE MIND
1. These are the stages of stream-entry, once-returning, nonreturning, and ara-
hantship. See chapter X.
2. See, e.g., AN 9:3 (IV 358) ~ Ud 4:1.
3. A translation of the sutta together with its commentary and substantial excerpts
from the subcommentary can be found in Soma Thera, The Way of Mindfulness.
Two excellent modern expositions, which also include translations of the sutta,
are: Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation, and Analayo,
Satipatthana: The Direct Path to Realization.
4. Mp: When serenity is developed independently of insight, it leads to the sup-
pression of the five hindrances, the first of which is sensual lust, and culmi-
nates in the "higher mind" (adhicitta) of the jhanas, characterized by the absence
of lust. But it is only when serenity is developed in conjunction with insight that
it can give rise to the noble path, which eradicates the underlying tendency to
sensual lust (by the path of nonreturning) and attachment to existence (by the
path of arahantship). Mp interprets serenity here in this second sense, presum-
ably on account of the last sentence of the sutta.
5. Mp: It is the wisdom of the supramundane path (magga-panna) that is devel-
oped. The "ignorance abandoned" is the great ignorance at the root of the cycle
of existence.
6. Arahantship is often described as "taintless liberation of mind, liberation by
wisdom" (anasava-cetovimutti-pannavimutti). Mp explains "liberation of mind"
(cetovimutti) as the concentration connected with the fruit (of arahantship), "lib-
eration by wisdom" (pannavimutti) as the wisdom connected with the fruit. Mp
is referring to the "meditative attainment of the fruit of arahantship" (arahatta-
phala-samapatti), a supramundane meditative absorption in which the arahant
experiences the bliss of Nibbana.
7. Samathapubbahgamam vipassanam. Mp: "This refers to a meditator who first
obtains serenity and then takes up insight meditation." The commentators call
such a meditator one who makes serenity the vehicle of practice (samatha-
yanika). See Vism 587; Ppn 18:3.
8. "The path" (magga) is the first supramundane path, that of stream-entry. To
"develop that path," according to Mp, means to practice for the attainment of
the three higher paths. On the ten fetters, see pp. 374-75; on the seven under-
lying tendencies, see p. 426 (chapter I, n.5).
9. Vipassanapubbahgamam samatham. Mp: "This refers to one who by natural bent
first attains to insight and then, based on insight, produces concentration." In
the commentarial literature this is called one who makes insight the vehicle
(vipassanayanika). See Vism 588; Ppn 18:4.
10. Samathavipassanam yuganaddham. In this mode of practice, one enters the first
jhana and then, after emerging from it, applies insight to that experience, i.e.,
one sees the five aggregates of the jhana (form, feeling, perception, etc.) as
impermanent, bound up with suffering, and nonself. Then one enters the sec-
ond jhana and contemplates it with insight. One applies the same procedure to
the other jhanas as well until the path of stream-entry, etc., is realized.
11. Dhammuddhaccaviggahitam manasam hoti. Mp says that "agitation" (uddhacca)
arises here as a reaction to the ten "corruptions of insight" (vipassanupakkilesa)
that one misunderstands as indicating path-attainment. (On the corruptions
of insight, see Vism 633-38; Ppn 20:105-28.) It is possible, however, that the
440 Notes to pages 269-75
"agitation about the teaching" is mental distress brought on by eagerness to
realize the Dhamma. This state of spiritual anxiety, when suddenly resolved,
can sometimes precipitate an instantaneous experience of awakening. For an
example, see the story of Bahiya Daruciriya at Ud 1:10.
12. Mp explains internal serenity of mind (ajjhattam cetosamatha) as the concentra-
tion of full absorption (i.e., jhana), and the higher wisdom of insight into phe-
nomena (adhipannadhammavipassana) as the insight knowledge discerning
formations (sankharapariggahaka-vipassanahana).
13. "Formations" (sahkhara) are the conditioned phenomena comprised in the five
aggregates. On the aggregates, see Texts IX,4(l)(a)-(e).
14. Spk applies the scholastic distinction of the three types of escape (nissarana) to
each hindrance. One escapes from the hindrance by suppression (vikkham-
bhananissarana) through jhana; one escapes in a particular respect (tadanganis-
sarana) through insight; and one escapes by eradication (samucchedanissarana)
through the supramundane path. Thus: (1) sensual desire is suppressed by the
first jhana based on the unattractive nature of the body (asubha; see Text VHI,8
§10) and eradicated by the path of arahantship (since kamacchanda is here inter-
preted widely enough to include desire for any object, not only sensual desire);
(2) ill will is suppressed by the first jhana based on loving-kindness and eradi-
cated by the path of nonreturning; (3) dullness and drowsiness are suppressed by
the perception of light (i.e., visualization of a bright light, like the disc of the sun
or the full moon) and eradicated by the path of arahantship; (4) restlessness and
remorse are suppressed by serenity, remorse is eradicated by the path of non-
returning and restlessness by the path of arahantship; and (5) doubt is suppressed
by the defining of phenomena (dhammavavatthana; see Vism 587-89; Ppn
18:3-8) and eradicated by the path of stream-entry.
15. These are the three "wrong thoughts," opposite of right thought or right inten-
tion, the second factor of the Noble Eightfold Path. See Text VII,2.
16. Dhammavitakka. Mp takes this to refer to the ten "corruptions of insight," but it
seems more natural to understand it simply as obsessive reflections about the
Dhamma.
17. This refers to the preliminary conditions for the six direct knowledges (abhinha),
to be described just below. The preliminary condition for the five mundane
direct knowledges is the fourth jhana. The preliminary condition for ara-
hantship, the sixth direct knowledge, is insight. This direct knowledge alone is
supramundane.
18. Ps says the higher mind (adhicitta) is the mind of the eight meditative attain-
ments used as a basis for insight; it is called "higher mind" because it is higher
than the ordinary (good) mind of the ten wholesome courses of action. The five
"signs" (nimitta) may be understood as practical methods for removing dis-
tracting thoughts. They should be resorted to only when the distractions
become persistent or obtrusive; at other times the meditator should remain
with the primary subject of meditation.
19. Ps: When thoughts of sensual desire arise directed toward living beings, the
"other sign" is the meditation on the unattractive nature of the body (see Text
VIII,8 §10); when the thoughts are directed to inanimate things, the "other
sign" is attention to impermanence. When thoughts of hate arise directed
toward living beings, the "other sign" is the meditation on loving-kindness;
when they are directed to inanimate things, the "other sign" is attention to the
Notes to pages 276-82 441
elements (see Text VIH,8 §12). The remedy for thoughts connected with delu-
sion is living under a teacher, studying the Dhamma, inquiring into its mean-
ing, listening to the Dhamma, and inquiring into causes.
20. Vitakka-sankhara-santhanam. Glossing sankhara here as condition, cause, or root,
Ps interprets the compound to mean "stopping the cause of the thought." This
is accomplished by inquiring, when an unwholesome thought has arisen:
"What is its cause? What is the cause of its cause?" etc. Such an inquiry slows
down, and eventually cuts off, the flow of unwholesome thoughts.
21. Tadarammanam, lit. "with that (one) as the object." Ps: First one develops loving-
kindness toward the person who addresses one with any of the five courses of
wrong speech, then one directs that mind of loving-kindness toward all beings,
making the entire world the object.
22. Mahanama was a close relative of the Buddha, a prominent member of the
Sakyan clan.
23. The phrases "arrived at the fruit" (agataphala) and "understood the teaching"
(vinnatasasana) indicate that he is asking about the meditations of a noble dis-
ciple at the minimum level of stream-enterer. However, such meditations can
also be profitably practiced by people at any level, for they temporarily cleanse
the mind of the defilements and lead to concentration.
24. I abridge the text, which here enumerates the different heavenly realms.
25. The Pali reads ekayano ayam bhikkhave maggo. Almost all translators have under-
stood this statement to be a declaration that satipatthana is an exclusive path.
Thus Soma Thera renders it: "This is the only way, O bhikkhus," and
Nyanaponika Thera: "This is the sole way, monks." However, at MN 12.37-42
ekayana magga has the unambiguous meaning of "a path that goes in one way
only," and that seems the meaning that fits best here as well. The point seems
to be simply that satipatthana goes in one direction, toward "the purification of
beings ... the realization of Nibbana."
26. Ps says the repetition "contemplating the body in the body" (kaye kayanupassi)
has the purpose of precisely determining the object of contemplation and of
isolating that object from others with which it might be confused. Thus, in this
practice, the body should be contemplated as such, and not one's feelings,
ideas, and emotions concerning it. The phrase also means that the body should
be contemplated simply as a body and not as a man, a woman, a self, or a liv-
ing being. Parallel considerations apply to the repetitions with regard to each
of the other three establishments of mindfulness. "Longing and dejection"
(abhiijha-domanassam), according to Ps, imply sensual desire and ill will, the
chief among the five mental hindrances.
27. On the structure of the discourse to follow, see pp. 262-63.
28. The practice of mindfulness of breathing (anapanasati) does not involves a delib-
erate attempt to regulate the breath, as in hatha yoga, but an effort to fix aware-
ness continuously on the breath as one breathes at a natural rhythm.
Mindfulness is set up at the nostrils or the upper lip, wherever the impact of the
breath is felt most distinctly. The length of the breath is noted but not con-
sciously controlled.
The complete development of this meditation subject is explained in Text
VIII,9. A detailed explanation of mindfulness of breathing according to the
commentarial system is at Vism 266-93; Ppn 8:145-244. See too the collection
of texts translated by Nanamoli, Mindfulness of Breathing.
442 Notes to pages 282-84
29. Ps, in line with other Pali commentaries, explains "experiencing the whole
body" (sabbakayapatisamvedi) to mean that the meditator becomes aware of each
in-breath and out-breath through its three phases of beginning, middle, and
end. This interpretation is difficult to square with the literal words of the orig-
inal text, which may have originally intended simply a global awareness of the
entire body. It is also difficult to see how -patisamvedi could mean "is aware of";
this suffix is based on the verb patisamvedeti meaning "to experience" or "to
feel," which has a different nuance from "awareness."
30. The "bodily formation" {kayasankhara) is defined as in-and-out breathing at MN
44.13 (I 301) and SN 41:6 (IV 293). Thus, as Ps explains, with the successful
development of this practice, the meditator's breathing becomes increasingly
more quiet, tranquil, and peaceful.
31. Ps: "Internally": contemplating the breathing in his own body. "Externally":
contemplating the breathing taking place in the body of another. "Internally
and externally": contemplating the breathing in his own body and in the body
of another alternately, with uninterrupted attention. A similar explanation
applies to the refrain that follows each of the other sections, except that under
the contemplation of feeling, mind, and phenomena, the contemplation exter-
nally, apart from those possessing telepathic powers, must be inferential. It is
also impossible for those without telepathic powers to directly contemplate the
breathing of another, apart from observation of the expansion and contraction
of the chest, so contemplation in this case too must be inferential.
32. Ps explains that the arising nature (samudayadhamma) of the body can be
observed in its conditioned origination through ignorance, craving, kamma,
and food, as well as in the moment-by-moment origination of material phe-
nomena in the body. In the case of mindfulness of breathing, an additional con-
dition is the physiological apparatus of respiration. The "vanishing nature"
(vayadhamma) of the body is seen in the cessation of bodily phenomena through
the cessation of their conditions as well as in the momentary dissolution of
bodily phenomena.
33. The understanding of the bodily postures referred to in this exercise is not
our normal knowledge of our bodily activity, but a close, constant, and care-
ful awareness of the body in every position, coupled with an analytical
examination intended to dispel the delusion of a self as the agent of bodily
movement.
34. Sampajahna, clear comprehension, is analyzed in the commentaries into four
types: (1) clear comprehension of the purpose of one's action; (2) clear compre-
hension of the suitability of one's means to the achievement of one's purpose;
(3) clear comprehension of the domain, that is, not abandoning the subject of
meditation during one's daily routine; and (4) clear comprehension of reality,
the awareness that behind one's activities there is no abiding self. See Soma, The
Way of Mindfulness, pp. 60-100; Nyanaponika, The Heart of Buddhist Meditation,
pp. 46-55.
35. A detailed explanation of this practice, according to the commentarial method,
is at Vism 239-266; Ppn 8:42-144. The mesentery is a fold of tissue that anchors
the small intestine to the back of the abdominal wall.
36. These four elements are the primary attributes of matter—the earth element
(pathavidhatu) is solidity; the water element (apodhatu), cohesion; the fire ele-
ment (tejodhatu), heat; and the air element (vayodhatu), pressure or distension.
s to pages z.0^—00
For a more detailed account of the contemplation of elements, see Text
IX,4(3)(c). For the commentarial explanation, see Vism 347-72; Ppn 11:27-126.
37. The phrase "as though" {seyyathapi) suggests that this meditation, and those to
follow, need not be based upon actual observation of a decaying corpse but
can be performed imaginatively. "This same body" is, of course, the meditator's
own body.
38. Each of the four types of corpse mentioned here, and the three types below,
may be taken as a separate and self-sufficient subject of meditation; or the entire
set may be used as a progressive series for impressing on the mind the idea of
the body's transience and insubstantiality. The progression continues in
§§26-30.
39. Feeling (vedana) signifies the affective quality of experience, bodily and mental,
either pleasant, painful, or neither, i.e., neutral feeling. Examples of the "carnal"
and "spiritual" varieties of these feelings are given at MN 137.9-15 (III 217-19)
under the rubric of the six kinds of joy, grief, and equanimity based respec-
tively on the household life and renunciation.
40. The conditions for the arising and vanishing of feeling are the same as those for
the body (see p. 442 (chapter VIII, n. 32) except that food is replaced by contact,
since contact is the condition for feeling).
41. Mind (citta) as an object of contemplation refers to the general state and level
of consciousness. Since consciousness itself is the bare knowing or cognizing of
an object, the quality of any state of mind is determined by its associated men-
tal factors, such as lust, hate, and delusion or their opposites.
42. The examples of citta given in this passage contrast states of mind of whole-
some and unwholesome, or developed and undeveloped character. The pair
"contracted" and "distracted," however, consists of unwholesome opposites,
the former due to dullness and drowsiness, the latter to restlessness and
remorse. Ps explains "exalted mind" and "unsurpassable mind" as the mind
pertaining to the meditative attainments (jhanas and formless states), "unex-
alted mind" and "surpassable mind" as the mind pertaining to sense-sphere
consciousness. The commentary says "liberated mind" should be understood
as a mind temporarily and partly freed from defilements through insight or
the jhanas. Since the practice of satipatthana pertains to the preliminary phase
of the path, the commentary holds that this last category should not be under-
stood as a mind liberated by attainment of the supramundane paths; perhaps,
however, this interpretation should not be excluded.
43. The conditions for the arising and vanishing of mind are the same as those
for the body except that food is replaced by name-and-form, the condition for
consciousness.
44. The five hindrances (panca nivarana): the main inner impediments to the devel-
opment of concentration and insight. See above, Text VIII,3.
45. See p. 440 (chapter VIII, n.147).
46. On the five aggregates, see pp. 22, 306-7, and Texts IX,4(l)(a)-(e).
47. The origin and passing away of the five aggregates can be understood in two
ways: (1) through their origination and cessation in dependence on their con-
ditions (see Text IX,4(l)(a)); and (2) through their discernible arising, change,
and vanishing (see SN 22:37-38). The two ways are not mutually exclusive but
can be conceptually distinguished.
48. On the six sense bases, see ppp. 309-11 and Texts IX,4(2)(a)-(e).
444 Notes to pages 288-93
49. The fetter is the desire and lust (chandaraga) that binds the sense faculties to
their objects; see SN 35:232.
50. On the enlightenment factors, see Text VHI,9.
51. The Pali commentaries give detailed information about the conditions that lead
to the maturation of the enlightenment factors. See Soma Thera, The Way of
Mindfulness, pp. 134-149.
52. The longer Mahasatipatthana Sutta in DN defines and elaborates on each of
the Four Noble Truths. See too MN 141.
53. Final knowledge (anna) is the arahant's knowledge of liberation. Nonreturning
(andgdmitd) is the attainment of the state of a nonreturner.
54. From this point on, the sutta closely corresponds with the second part of the
Anapanasati Sutta (MN 118), the first part of which is a prelude to the instruc-
tions on mindfulness of breathing. The first tetrad is identical with the passage
on mindfulness of breathing in the "contemplation of the body" section of the
Satipatthana Sutta just above.
55. The "mental formation" (cittasankhara) is perception and feeling; see MN 44 (I
301) = SN 41:6 (IV 293).
56. Vism 289; Ppn 8:233: "Liberating the mind" from the hindrances by the first
jhana, and from the grosser jhana factors by attaining successively higher
jhanas; and liberating it from the cognitive distortions by means of insight
knowledge.
57. Vism 290-291; Ppn 8:234-37: "Contemplating impermanence" (aniccdnupassi) is
contemplating the five aggregates as impermanent because they undergo rise
and fall and change, or because they undergo momentary dissolution. This
tetrad deals entirely with insight, unlike the other three, which can be inter-
preted by way of both serenity and insight.
"Contemplating fading away" (virdgdnupassi) and "contemplating cessa-
tion" (nirodhdnupassi) can be understood both as the insight into the momen-
tary destruction and cessation of phenomena and as the supramundane path,
which realizes Nibbana as the fading away of lust (virdga, dispassion) and the
cessation of formations. "Contemplating relinquishment" (patinissaggdnu-
passl) is giving up (pariccdga) or abandoning (pahdna) defilements through
insight and entering into (pakkhandana) Nibbana by attainment of the path.
58. Spk: Attention is not actually feeling, but this is a heading of the teaching. In
this tetrad, in the first phrase feeling is spoken of indirectly under the heading
of rapture (which is not a feeling), in the second phrase it is referred to directly
as happiness (= pleasant feeling). In the third and fourth phrases, feeling is
included in the mental formation.
59. Spk: Having seen with wisdom, etc. Here, "longing" is just the hindrance of sen-
sual desire; by "dejection" the hindrance of ill will is shown. This tetrad is
stated by way of insight only. These two hindrances are the first among the
five hindrances, the first section in the contemplation of mental phenomena.
Thus he says this to show the beginning of the contemplation of mental phe-
nomena. By "abandoning" is meant the knowledge that effects abandoning,
e.g., one abandons the perception of permanence by contemplation of imper-
manence. By the words "having seen with wisdom" he shows the succession
of insights thus: "With one insight knowledge (he sees) the knowledge of aban-
donment consisting in the knowledges of impermanence, dispassion, cessa-
tion, and relinquishment; and that too (he sees) by still another." He is one who
Notes to pages 293-320 445
looks on closely with equanimity: one is said to look on with equanimity (at the
mind) that has fared along the path [Spk-pt: by neither exerting nor restraining
the mind of meditative development that has properly fared along the middle
way], and by the presentation as a unity [Spk-pt: since there is nothing further
to be done in that respect when the mind has reached one-pointedness]. One
"looks on with equanimity" at the object.
60. Satisambojjhahga. Bojjhahga is compounded from bodhi + anga. At SN 46:5, they
are explained as the factors that lead to enlightenment. The three phrases used
to describe the cultivation of each enlightenment factor can be understood to
depict three successive stages of development. "He arouses" is its initial
arousal; "he develops" is its gradual maturation; and "it goes to fulfillment by
development" is its culmination.
61. Dhammavicayasambojjhanga. At SN 46:2 (V 66), the "nutriment" for the arising
of this factor of enlightenment is said to be frequently giving careful attention
to wholesome and unwholesome mental phenomena, blamable and blameless
states, inferior and superior states, dark and bright states with their counter-
parts. Although this factor of enlightenment is identified with panhd or wis-
dom, the above passage suggests that its initial function is to discriminate
between the good and bad mental phenomena that become apparent with the
deepening of mindfulness.
62. Sariputta was one of the Buddha's two chief disciples, the one who excelled in
wisdom. For a biography, see Nyanaponika and Hecker, Great Disciples of the
Buddha, chapter 1.
63. "I-making" (ahahkara) is the function of view of self; "mine-making"
(mamankara), of craving. The root conceit is the conceit "I am" (asmimana), so the
"underlying tendency to conceit" is also responsible for "I-making."
64. Sahhdvedayitanirodha. Also known as nirodhasamdpatti, the attainment of cessa-
tion, this is a special meditative attainment said to be accessible solely to non-
returners and arahants. As its name suggests, it involves the total cessation of
perceptual and affective functions, and according to the commentaries, of con-
sciousness and all its associated mental factors. For a detailed discussion
according to the commentarial system, see Vism 702-9; Ppn 23:16-52.
CHAPTER IX: SHINING THE LIGHT OF WISDOM
1. Unfortunately, the connection between the noun and the verb, so obvious in the
Pali, is lost when panhd is translated as "wisdom" and the verb rendered "one
understands." To avoid this, other translators have preferred renderings for panhd
that preserve a visible connection between the noun and the verb, for example,
"understanding" (Bhikkhu Nanamoli) or "discernment" (Thanissaro Bhikkhu).
2. E.g., at SN 22:5, 35:99, 35:160, 56:1.
3. This correlation is commonly made in the commentaries when they comment
on this formula.
4. The commentarial interpretation, detailed and highly technical, is found in
Vism, chapter 17.
5. In the Pali commentaries, these two elements of Nibbana are called respectively
kilesa-parinibbana, the extinction of defilements, and khandha-parinibbana, the
extinction of the aggregates.
6. The two words are actually derived from different verbal roots. Nibbuta is past
446 Notes to pages 320-'
participle of nir + vr; which has a corresponding noun nibbuti, used as a syn-
onym for Nibbana. Nibbana is from nir + va.
7. For an amplification of the ocean simile, see SN 44:1.
8. Patimokkha: the code of training rules governing the conduct of a fully
ordained monk.
9. Ps: Right view is twofold: mundane (lokiya) and supramundane (lokuttara).
Mundane right view is again twofold: the view that kamma produces its
fruits, which may be held both by Buddhists and non-Buddhists, and the
view in conformity with the Four Noble Truths, which is exclusive to the
Buddha's teaching. Supramundane right view is the understanding of the
Four Noble Truths attained by penetrating to the four paths and fruits (see p.
373). The question posed by Sariputta concerns the sekha, the disciple in
higher training.
10. These are the ten courses of unwholesome action. For a more detailed explana-
tion, see Text V,l(2). Their opposites, just below, are the ten courses of whole-
some action, also elaborated in the same text.
11. Ps explains the disciple's understanding of these four terms by way of the Four
Noble Truths thus: all the courses of action (unwholesome and wholesome) are
the truth of suffering; the wholesome and unwholesome roots are the truth of
the origin; the non-occurrence of both actions and their roots is the truth of ces-
sation; and the noble path that realizes cessation is the truth of the path. To this
extent a noble disciple at one of the first three planes has been described—one
who has arrived at supramundane right view but has not yet eliminated all
defilements.
12. Ps says that the passage from "he entirely abandons the underlying tendency
to lust" until "he makes an end of suffering" shows the work accomplished by
the paths of the nonreturner and arahantship. The path of the nonreturner elim-
inates the underlying tendencies to sensual lust and aversion; the path of ara-
hantship removes the underlying tendency to the view and conceit "I am." Ps
says the expression "underlying tendency to the view and conceit T am'" (asmi
ti ditthimananusaya) should be interpreted to mean the underlying tendency to
conceit that is similar to a view because, like the view of self, it occurs grasping
the notion "I am."
13. Nutriment (ahara) is to be understood here in a broad sense as a prominent con-
dition for the individual life-process. Physical food is an important condition
for the physical body, contact for feeling, mental volition for consciousness,
and consciousness for name-and-form, the psychophysical organism in its total-
ity. Craving is called the origin of nutriment since the craving of the previous
existence is the source of the present individuality with its dependence upon
and continual consumption of the four nutriments in this existence. For an
annotated compilation of canonical and commentarial texts on the nutriments,
see Nyanaponika Thera, The Vision ofDhamma, pp. 211-28.
14. The next twelve sections present, in reverse order, a factor-by-factor examina-
tion of dependent origination. See too Texts IX, 4(4)(a)-(f).
15. The three kinds of existence (bhava): on the three realms of existence, see pp.
149-50. In the formula of dependent origination, "existence" signifies both the
planes of rebirth and the types of kamma that produce rebirth into those planes.
The former is known technically as upapattibhava, "rebirth-existence," the latter
as kammabhava, "karmically active existence."
Notes to pages 329-34 447
16. Clinging to rules and observances (silabbatupadana) is the adherence to the view
that purification can be achieved by adopting certain external rules or follow-
ing certain observances, particularly of ascetic self-discipline; clinging to a doc-
trine of self (attavadupadana) is holding one or another of the views of self that
originate from identity view (see particularly the Brahmajala Sutta, DN 1);
clinging to views (ditthupadana) is the clinging to any other view (than one of
the two enumerated separately). Clinging in any of its varieties is a strength-
ening of craving, its condition.
17. Craving for phenomena {dhammatanha) is the craving for all objects of con-
sciousness except the objects of the five classes of sense consciousness. Exam-
ples would be the craving associated with fantasies and mental imagery, with
abstract ideas and intellectual gratification, and so forth.
18. Contact (phassa) is the coming together (sahgati) of internal sense base (sense
faculty), external sense base (object), and consciousness.
19. The term namarupa was of pre-Buddhistic origins. It was used in the Upanisads
to represent the differentiated manifestation of brahman, the nondual absolute
reality appearing in the guise of multiplicity. Brahman apprehended by the
senses as diversified appearances is form (rupa); brahman apprehended by
thought through diversified names or concepts is name (nama). The Buddha
adopted this expression and gave it a meaning governed by his own system.
Here name and form become, respectively, the cognitive and physical sides of
individual existence.
In the Buddha's system, rupa is defined as the four great elements and the
form derived from them. Form is both internal to the person (= the body with
its senses) and external (= the physical world). The Nikayas do not explain
derived form (upadaya rupa), but the Abhidhamma analyzes it into twenty-four
kinds of secondary material phenomena, which include the sensitive matter of
the five sense faculties and four of the five sense objects (the tactile object is
identified with three of the great elements—earth, heat, and air—which each
exhibit tangible properties).
Though I render nama as name, this should not be taken too literally. Nama
is the assemblage of mental factors involved in cognition: feeling, perception,
volition, contact, and attention (vedana, sanna, cetana, phassa, manasikara). These
are probably called "name" because they contribute to the conceptual designa-
tion of objects. It should be noted that in the Nikayas, namarupa does not
include consciousness (vinnana). Consciousness is the condition for namarupa,
just as the latter is the condition for consciousness, so that the two are mutually
dependent (see Text 11,3(3)).
20. Mind-consciousness (manovinnana) comprises all consciousness except the five
types of sense consciousness just mentioned. It includes consciousness of men-
tal images, abstract ideas, and internal states of mind, as well as the conscious-
ness that reflects upon sense objects.
21. In the context of the doctrine of dependent origination, volitional formations
(sankhara) are wholesome and unwholesome volitions. The bodily formation is
volition expressed through the body; the verbal formation, volition expressed
by speech; and the mental formation, volition that does not reach bodily or ver-
bal expression.
22. It should be noted that while ignorance is a condition for the taints, the taints
including the taint of ignorance—are in turn a condition for ignorance. Ps says
448 Notes to pages 335-43
that this conditioning of ignorance by ignorance implies that the ignorance in
any one existence is conditioned by the ignorance in the preceding existence.
Since this is so, the conclusion follows that no first point can be discovered for
ignorance, and thus that samsara is without discernible beginning.
23. The "four phases" (or "four turnings," catuparivatta) are: aggregate, origin, ces-
sation, and the way to cessation, as applied to each of the five aggregates.
24. This passage describes the trainees (sekha). They have directly known the Four
Noble Truths and are practicing for the ultimate cessation of the five aggre-
gates, that is, for Nibbana.
25. This passage describes the arahants. According to DN II 63-64, the round of
existence turns as a basis for manifestation and designation only in so far as
there is consciousness together with name-and-form; when both consciousness
and name-and-form cease, there is no round to serve as a basis for manifesta-
tion and designation.
26. Cha cetanakaya. The fact that there is a difference between the name of the aggre-
gate, sahkharakkhandha, and the term of definition, cetana, suggests that this
aggregate has a wider range than the others. In the Abhidhamma and the com-
mentaries, it is treated as an "umbrella category" for classifying all the mental
factors mentioned in the suttas apart from feeling and perception. Volition is
mentioned in the definition because it is the most important factor in this aggre-
gate, not because it is its exclusive constituent.
27. It is significant that while contact is the condition for the arising of the three
aggregates of feeling, perception, and volitional formations, name-and-form is
the condition for the arising of consciousness. This supports the statement in
the ten-factored formula of dependent origination, found in Text 11,3(3), that
name-and-form is the condition for consciousness.
28. According to Spk, desire (chanda) here is synonymous with craving (tanha). This
is said because the five aggregates in any given existence originate from the
residual craving for new existence of the immediately preceding existence.
29. Clinging is not the same as the "five aggregates subject to clinging" because the
aggregates are not reducible to clinging. Yet clinging is not something apart
from the "five aggregates subject to clinging" because there is no clinging that
does not have the aggregates as its support and object.
30. On "I-making, mine-making, and the underlying tendency to conceit," see p.
445 (chapter IX, n.63).
31. This is the second discourse of the Buddha, according to the narrative of the
Buddha's teaching career at Vin 113-14. The five bhikkhus are the first five dis-
ciples, who at this point are still trainees (sekha). The Buddha's purpose in teach-
ing this discourse is to lead them to arahantship.
32. The sutta offers two "arguments" for the thesis of nonself. The first contends
that the aggregates are nonself on the ground that we cannot exercise mastery
over them. Since we cannot bend the aggregates to our will, they are all "sub-
ject to affliction" and therefore cannot be considered our self. The second argu-
ment, introduced just below, posits the characteristic of nonself on the basis of
the other two characteristics. Whatever is impermanent is in some way bound
up with suffering; whatever is impermanent and bound up with suffering can-
not be identified as our self.
33. Spk explains at length how form (i.e., the body) is like a lump of foam
(phenapinda). I give merely the highlights: As a lump of foam lacks any substance
Notes to pages 344-54 449
(sara), so form lacks any substance that is permanent, stable, a self; as the lump
of foam is full of holes and fissures and the abode of many creatures, so too
form; as the lump of foam, after expanding, breaks up, so does form, which is
pulverized in the mouth of death.
34. Spk: A bubble (bubbula) is feeble and cannot be grasped, for it breaks up as soon
as it is seized; so too feeling is feeble and cannot be grasped as permanent and
stable. As a bubble arises and ceases in a drop of water and does not last long,
so too with feeling: billions of feelings arise and cease in the time of a finger-
snap. As a bubble arises in dependence on conditions, so feeling arises in
dependence on a sense base, an object, the defilements, and contact.
35. Spk: Perception is like a mirage (maricika) in the sense that it is insubstantial, for
one cannot grasp a mirage to drink or bathe or fill a pitcher. As a mirage
deceives the multitude, so does perception, which entices people with the idea
that the colorful object is beautiful, pleasurable, and permanent.
36. Spk: As a banana trunk (kadalikkhandha) is an assemblage of many sheaths, each
with its own characteristic, so the aggregate of volitional formations is an
assemblage of many phenomena, each with its own characteristic.
37. Spk: Consciousness is like a magical illusion (maya) in the sense that it is insub-
stantial and cannot be grasped. Consciousness is even more transient and fleet-
ing than a magical illusion. For it gives the impression that a person comes and
goes, stands and sits, with the same mind, but the mind is different in each of
these activities. Consciousness deceives the multitude like a magical illusion.
38. This sutta, sometimes called "The Fire Sermon," is the third discourse recorded
in the narrative of the Buddha's ministry, at Vin I 34-35. According to this
source, the thousand monks to whom the sutta was addressed had formerly
been fire-worshipping ascetics, and thus the Buddha used this theme because
it corresponded with their background. For an account of how the Buddha con-
verted them, see Nanamoli, The Life of the Buddha, pp. 54-60, 64-69.
39. The Buddha is speaking to Pukkusati, a monk who had gone forth out of faith
in the Buddha without ever having seen him before. When the sutta opens, the
Buddha arrives at a potter's shed, intending to spend the night there. Pukkusati
has already been lodging in the shed and greets the Buddha in a friendly way,
unaware that this is his master. Without revealing his identity to Pukkusati,
the Buddha initiates a conversation, which turns into a discourse on the devel-
opment of wisdom.
40. Ps: This is the sixth element, which "remains" in that it has yet to be expounded
by the Buddha and penetrated by Pukkusati. Here it is explained as the con-
sciousness that accomplishes the work of insight contemplation on the ele-
ments. Under the heading of consciousness, the contemplation of feeling is also
introduced.
41. This passage shows the conditionality of feeling and its impermanence through
the cessation of its condition.
42. Idappaccayata. The word is a compound of idam, this, with paccaya, condition,
augmented by the abstract noun termination-fa.This is a synonym for paticca-
samuppada. See Text 11,4 §19, which likewise connects the realization of depend-
ent origination with the Buddha's enlightenment.
43. Spk: Actuality (tathata) means the occurrence of each particular phenomenon
when its assemblage of appropriate conditions is present. Inerrancy (avi-
tathata) means that once its conditions have reached completeness there is no
450 Notes to pages 355-57
non-occurrence, even for a moment, of the phenomenon due to be produced
from those conditions. Invariability {ananhathata) means that there is no produc-
tion of one phenomenon by another's conditions.
44. Dhamme nana. This is the direct knowledge of the Four Noble Truths arisen
through penetration of Nibbana as the truth of cessation.
45. Anvaye nana. This is an inference extending to the past and the future, based on
the immediate discernment of the conditional relationship obtaining between
any pair of factors.
46. Spk: The idea of existence {atthita) is eternalism (sassata); the idea of nonexistence
(natthita) is annihilationism (uccheda). Spk-pt: The idea of existence is eternal-
ism because it maintains that the entire world (of personal existence) exists for-
ever. The notion of nonexistence is annihilationism because it maintains that the
entire world does not exist (forever) but is cut off.
In view of these explanations it would be misleading to translate the two
terms, atthita and natthita, simply as "existence" and "nonexistence." In the
present passage atthita and natthita are abstract nouns formed from the verbs
atthi and natthi. It is thus the metaphysical assumptions implicit in such abstrac-
tions that are at fault, not the ascriptions of existence and nonexistence them-
selves. I have tried to convey this sense of metaphysical abstraction, conveyed
in Pali by the termination -ta, by rendering the two terms "the idea of existence"
and "the idea of nonexistence," respectively.
Unfortunately, atthita and bhava both had to be rendered by "existence,"
which obscures the fact that in Pali they are derived from different roots. While
atthita is the notion of existence in the abstract, bhava is concrete individual exis-
tence in one or another of the three realms. For the sake of marking the differ-
ence, bhava might have been rendered "being," but this English word is too
likely to suggest "Being," the absolute object of philosophical speculation. It
does not sufficiently convey the sense of concreteness intrinsic to bhava.
47. Spk: The origin of the world: the production of the world of formations. There is
no idea of nonexistence in regard to the world: there does not occur in him the anni-
hilationist view that might arise in regard to phenomena produced and made
manifest in the world of formations, holding "They do not exist." Spk-pt: The
annihilationist view might arise in regard to the world of formations thus: "On
account of the annihilation and perishing of beings right where they are, there
is no persisting being or phenomenon." It also includes the wrong view, having
those formations as its object, that holds: "There are no beings who are reborn."
That view does not occur in him; for one seeing with right understanding the pro-
duction and origination of the world of formations in dependence on such
diverse conditions as kamma, ignorance, craving, etc., that annihilationist view
does not occur, since one sees the uninterrupted production of formations.
Spk: The cessation of the world: the dissolution of formations. There is no idea of
existence in regard to the world: There does not occur in him the eternalist view
that might arise in regard to phenomena produced and made manifest in the
world of formations, holding "They exist." Spk-pt: The eternalist view might
arise in regard to the world of formations, taking it to exist at all times, owing
to the apprehension of identity in the uninterrupted continuum occurring in a
cause-effect relationship. But that view does not occur in him; because he sees the
cessation of the successively arisen phenomena and the arising of successively
new phenomena, the eternalist view does not occur.
pages 3O/-O0 toi
Spk: Further, "the origin of the world" is direct-order conditionality (anuloma-
paccayakara); "the cessation of the world" is reverse-order conditionality
(patiloma-paccayakara). [Spk-pt: "Direct-order conditionality" is the condition-
ing efficiency of the conditions in relation to their own effects; "reverse-order
conditionality" is the cessation of the effects through the cessation of their
respective causes.] For in seeing the dependency of the world, when one sees
the continuation of the conditionally arisen phenomena owing to the contin-
uation of their conditions, the annihilationist view, which might otherwise
have arisen, does not occur. And in seeing the cessation of conditions, when
one sees the cessation of the conditionally arisen phenomena owing to the ces-
sation of their conditions, the eternalist view, which might otherwise have
arisen, does not occur.
48. Spk explains dukkha here as "the mere five aggregates subject to clinging"
(pane' upadanakkhandhamattam eva). Thus what the noble disciple sees, when he
reflects upon his personal existence, is not a self or a substantially existent per-
son but a mere assemblage of conditioned phenomena arising and passing
away through the conditioning process of dependent origination.
49. I interpret what one intends (ceteti) and what one plans (pakappeti) here as repre-
senting volitional formations (sahkhara), the second factor in the formula of
dependent origination. Whatever one has a tendency toward (anuseti) implies the
underlying tendencies (anusaya), primarily the tendencies toward ignorance
and craving, hence the first and eighth factors in the formula. When one passes
away with the tendencies toward ignorance and craving still intact, one's inten-
tions and plans—the concrete manifestations of craving in the form of voli-
tional activities—become the basis for consciousness to continue on, become
established in a fresh "name-and-form," and initiate the production of a new
existence. This is the event of birth, followed by aging, death, and the other
types of suffering between birth and death.
50. Although it is not possible to have the underlying tendencies without inten-
tions and plans, this passage might be seen to have the rhetorical purpose of
emphasizing the role of the underlying tendencies in sustaining the process of
rebirth. But according to Spk, the passage is intended to show that for an insight
meditator who has overcome unwholesome thoughts, the danger of rebirth
still exists as long as the underlying tendencies remain intact.
51. This paragraph shows the arahant.
52. Tathani avitathani anannathani. See pp. 449-50, note 43. Spk: "Actual in the sense
of not departing from the real nature of things; for suffering is stated to be just
suffering. Unerring, because of not falsifying its real nature; for suffering does
not become nonsuffering. Invariable, because of not arriving at a different
nature; for suffering does not arrive at the nature of the origin (of suffering), etc.
The same method for the other truths." I understand anannatha in the simpler
and more straightforward sense that the truths are "invariable" because they
never vary from the way things really are.
53. Bhavanetti. That which leads to new existence, i.e., craving for existence.
54. All these leaves are small and delicate. The leaves mentioned in the counterpart
passage below are broad and sturdy.
55. Spk identifies him as Sariputta's nephew.
56. Nippapancam. Spk: Because it is not proliferated (elaborated) by craving, conceit,
and views.
452 Notes to pages 366-86
57. The negation of the physical elements can be taken to deny, not only the pres-
ence of matter in Nibbana, but also the identification of Nibbana with the expe-
riences of the jhanas, which still pertain to the realm of form. The following four
items negate the objects of the four formless meditative attainments in Nibbana.
58. In Pali, dittha, "seen," is here clearly intended as an antithesis to ditthi, "view."
CHAPTER X: THE PLANES OF REALIZATION
1. The terminology of "path" and "fruition" is a commentarial way of drawing the
distinction. The suttas themselves do not use the scheme of four "paths" but
speak only of one path, the Noble Eightfold Path that leads to the cessation of
suffering. This is also called the arahattamagga, the path to arahantship, but in
a broad sense, as the path to the highest goal, not in the narrow sense of the
path preceding the fruit of arahantship. However, the suttas do make a distinc-
tion between the person practicing for the attainment of a particular fruit (phala-
sacchikiriyaya patipanna) and the person who has attained the stage that results
from this practice (see Text X,l(l)). Based on this distinction, the commentarial
terminology of path and fruit is useful as a concise way of referring to the two
phases of the Nikaya scheme.
2. My explanation of the once-returner's attenuation of lust, hatred, and defile-
ments is based on the commentaries. Apart from the standard formula, the
suttas themselves say very little about the once-returner.
3. It is also important to note that the suttas imply that the dhammanusarl and
saddhanusari remain thus for an extended period of time. The position of the
suttas seems to contradict the commentarial idea that a path-attainer is such
only for a single mind-moment. If the latter were the case, this would mean
that a dhammanusarl and saddhanusari are such for only a single mind-moment,
and this seems hard to square with sutta statements to the effect that they
receive gifts, resort to lodgings in the forest, etc.
4. The commentarial method of explanation stipulates that the meditator emerges
from the jhana attainment and practices insight contemplation with a mind made
sharp and supple by the jhana. However, the suttas themselves say nothing
about emerging from the jhana. If one reads the suttas alone, without the com-
mentaries, it seems as if the meditator examines the factors within the jhana itself.
5. As the arahants have achieved liberation from the round of existence, it is
impossible to point to any place within the round where they might appear;
hence they have no future round for manifestation.
6. The "five lower fetters" {pane' orambhagiyani samyojanani) are: identity view,
doubt, grasping of rules and observances, sensual lust, and ill will. Those who
are spontaneously reborn (opapatika) take rebirth without dependence on a
mother and father.
7. The "three fetters" are the first three of the five fetters, just above. "Fixed in
destiny" (niyata) means that the stream-enterer is bound to reach liberation in
at most seven more lives passed either in the human world or in celestial
realms. Enlightenment (sambodhi) is the arahant's full and final knowledge of
the Four Noble Truths.
8. On the distinction between these two types, see below, Text X,l(5) §§20-21 and
Text X,2(2).
9. Ps says that this refers to persons devoted to the practice of insight who have
Notes to pages 387-94 453
not reached any supramundane realization but possess strong conviction in
the truth of the Dhamma. The words saddhamattam pemamattam might have
been translated "mere faith, mere love," but such qualities could not guaran-
tee a rebirth in heaven. It thus seems necessary to take the suiiix-matta as
implying a sufficient amount of these qualities, not simply their mere existence.
10. The Buddha is here speaking with the wanderer Vacchagotta (see Text IX,5(6)).
Ps says that Vacchagotta thought the Buddha may have been the only one
within his community to have attained the final goal.
11. This question and the one in §11 concern the nonreturner. Note that nonreturn-
ers observe celibacy.
12. This question and the one in §12 concern stream-enterers and once-returners.
Since they are described as enjoying sensual pleasures, this means that they
are not obliged to observe celibacy.
13. Ubhatobhagavimutta. Ps: He is liberated in both ways because he is liberated
from the form body by the formless attainments and from the mental body by
the path of arahantship.
The dual liberation of the "both-ways-liberated" arahant should not be con-
fused with the "taintless liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom" (anasava
cetovimutti pannavimutti), which is shared by all arahants, regardless of whether
or not they attain the formless attainments.
14. Pannavimutta. Ps says this includes those who attain any of the four jhanas as
well as the dry-insight arahant. A dry-insight arahant is not explicitly recog-
nized in the Nikayas.
15. Kayasakkhi. This includes all those from persons on the path to arahantship
down to stream-enterers who attain the formless attainments.
16. Ditthippatta. This includes the same classes who do not attain the formless
attainments and in whom wisdom is the dominant faculty.
17. Saddhavimutta. This includes the same classes in whom faith is the dominant
faculty.
18. Dhammanusarl This type and the next, the saddhanusari, are the two kinds of
persons practicing for realization of the fruit of stream-entry. See p. 375 and
Text X,2(2).
19. Sammattaniyama: the supramundane Noble Eightfold Path.
20. Contrary to the commentaries, which hold that the path-attainer realizes the
fruit immediately after attaining the path, the Nikayas say merely that one who
reaches the stage of Dhamma-follower or faith-follower (corresponding to the
commentarial notion of path-attainer) will realize the fruit within this same
life—but not necessarily in the next mind-moment. The two positions might be
reconciled if we see the path of the Dhamma-follower and faith-follower as
extended in time but reaching its climax in an instantaneous breakthrough that
is immediately followed by realization of the fruit.
21. This statement makes it clear how the stream-enterer differs from those on the
path to stream-entry. The faith-follower accepts the teaching on trust (with a
limited degree of understanding), the Dhamma-follower accepts it through
investigation (with a greater degree of understanding); but the stream-enterer
has directly known and seen the teaching.
22. The breakthrough to the Dhamma {dhammahhisamaya) and the gaining of the
vision of the Dhamma {dhammacakkhupatilabha) are synonyms signifying the
attainment of stream-entry.
454 Notes to pages 394-402
23. Aveccappasada. Spk explains this as unshakable confidence gained through what
has been attained, namely, stream-entry.
24. The hells, the animal realm, and the sphere of afflicted spirits are themselves the
plane of misery, the bad destinations, and the lower world.
25. Identity (sakkaya) is the composite of the five aggregates that we identify as our
"self." The cessation of identity is Nibbana.
26. Upadhi. In the present context, this word seems to mean material possessions.
27. Of these eleven attributes, "impermanent" and "disintegrating" illustrate the
characteristic of impermanence; "alien," "empty," and "nonself," the character-
istic of nonself; the other six, the characteristic of suffering.
28. Ps: He turns his mind away from the five aggregates included within the jhana,
which he has seen to be marked with the three characteristics. The "deathless
element" (amatadhdtu) is Nibbana. First, he "directs his mind to it" with the
insight consciousness, having heard it praised as "peaceful and sublime," and
so forth. Then, with the supramundane path, he "directs his mind to it" by
making it an object and penetrating it as "peaceful and sublime," and so forth.
29. Dhammaragena dhammanandiya. It seems that this desire for the Dhamma and
delight in the Dhamma do two things simultaneously: (1) because they are
directed toward the Dhamma, they propel the disciple to the destruction of the
five lower fetters; (2) because they are still desire and delight, they prevent the
attainment of arahantship.
30. Here, in the formless attainments, the sutta mentions only the four mental
aggregates. The aggregate of form is excluded.
31. These are meditation subjects that lead to disenchantment and dispassion. The
unattractiveness of the body is at Text VIII,8 §10; the reflection on the repul-
siveness of food is explained at Vism 341-47 (Ppn 11:1-26); the perception of
death, at Vism 229-39 (Ppn 8:1-41); and the perception of discontent with the
entire world, and the contemplation of impermanence in all formations, at AN
10:60; V 111.
32. At AN V 110, the perception of abandonment (pahanasanna) is explained as the
removal of defiled thoughts. At AN V 110-11, the perception of dispassion
(viragasanna) and the perception of cessation (viragasanna) are both explained as
reflections on the attributes of Nibbana.
33. Spk explains the antaraparinibbayi ("one who attains Nibbana in the interval")
as one reborn in the pure abodes who attains arahantship during the first half
of the lifespan. This type is subdivided into three, depending on whether ara-
hantship is reached: (1) on the very day of rebirth; (2) after one or two hun-
dred eons have elapsed; or (3) after four hundred eons have elapsed. The
upahaccaparinibbayi ("one who attains Nibbana upon landing") is explained as
one who attains arahantship after passing the first half of the lifespan. For Spk,
the asahkharaparinibbayi ("one who attains without exertion") and the
sasahkharaparinibbayi ("one who attains with exertion") then become two modes
in which the first two types of nonreturners attain the goal, respectively, easily
and without strong effort, and with difficulty and strong effort. However, this
account of the first two types disregards the literal meaning of their names and
also overrides the sequential and mutually exclusive nature of the five types as
delineated elsewhere in the suttas.
If we understand the term antaraparinibbayi literally, as it seems we should,
it then means one who attains Nibbana in the interval between two lives, perhaps
Notes to pages 403-6 455
while existing in a subtle body in the intermediate state. The upahaccaparinibbayi
then becomes one who attains Nibbana "upon landing" or "striking ground"
in the new existence, i.e., almost immediately after taking rebirth. The next two
terms designate two types who attain arahantship in the course of the next life,
distinguished by the amount of effort they must make to win the goal. The last,
the uddhamsota akanitthagami, is one who takes rebirth in successive pure
abodes, completes the full lifespan in each, and finally attains arahantship in
the akanittha realm, the highest pure abode.This interpretation, though con-
trary to the Pali commentaries, seems to be confirmed by AN 7:52 (IV 70-74),
in which the simile of the flaming chip suggests that the seven types (includ-
ing the three kinds of antaraparinibbayi) are mutually exclusive and have been
graded according to the sharpness of their faculties.
34. In declaring that he does not recognize a self or the belongings of a self among
the five aggregates, Khemaka has implicitly declared that he has attained at
least the level of a stream-enterer. But the other monks did not realize that all
the noble persons share this understanding and assumed this was the unique
realization of the arahant. Thus they misinterpreted Khemaka's statement as
insinuating that he had attained arahantship.
35. Although all three eds. of SN that I consulted (Be, Ce, and Ee) and both eds.
of Spk (Be and Ce) read asmi ti adhigatam, I suspect this is an archaic corrup-
tion that has gained currency. I propose reading asmi ti avigatam. The passage
clarifies an essential difference between the trainee {sekha) and the arahant.
While the sekha has eliminated identity view and thus no longer identifies any
of the five aggregates as a self, he has not yet eradicated ignorance, which sus-
tains a residual conceit and desire "I am" (anusahagato asmi ti mano asmi ti
chando) in relation to the five aggregates. The arahant, in contrast, has eradi-
cated ignorance, the root of all misconceptions, and thus no longer entertains
any ideas of "I" and "mine." The other elders apparently had not yet attained
any stage of awakening and thus did not understand this difference, but the
Venerable Khemaka must have been at least a stream-enterer (some commen-
tators say he was a nonreturner) and thus knew that the elimination of iden-
tity view does not completely remove the sense of personal identity. Even for
the nonreturner, an "odor of subjectivity" based on the five aggregates still
lingers over his experience.
36. Spk: The worldling's mental process is like the soiled cloth. The three contem-
plations (of impermanence, suffering, and nonself) are like the three cleansers.
The mental process of the nonreturner is like the cloth that has been washed
with the three cleansers. The defilements to be eradicated by the path of ara-
hantship are like the residual smell of the cleansers. The knowledge of the path
of arahantship is like the sweetly scented chest, and the destruction of all defile-
ments by that path is like the vanishing of the residual smell of the cleansers
from the cloth after it has been placed in the chest.
37. That is, outside the Buddha's teaching.
38. As I understand it, "that which is their destination ... their final goal" is
Nibbana. We have here another essential difference between the trainee and
the arahant: the trainee s«?s Nibbana, the destination of the five faculties, that
in which they culminate, their fruit and final goal; however, he cannot "contact
it with the body," cannot enter upon the full experience of it. In contrast, the ara-
hant both sees the final goal and can fully experience it here and now.
456 Notes to pages 409-11
39. These are the thirty-seven bodhipakkhiya dhamma, lit. "states pertaining to
enlightenment," more freely: "aids to enlightenment." On the four establish-
ments of mindfulness, see Text VH,2 and Text VIH,8 for details and SN chap-
ter 47. The four right kinds of striving are equivalent to right effort, for which
see Text VH,2 and SN chapter 49. The four bases for spiritual power are: con-
centration due to (1) desire, or (2) energy, or (3) mind, or (4) investigation, with
volitional forces of striving; see SN chapter 51. The five faculties are at Text
X,l(2); see SN chapter 48 for details. The five powers are the same five factors
as the faculties, but with greater strength. The seven factors of enlightenment
are at Text VIH,9; see SN chapter 46. The Noble Eightfold Path is at Text VII,2;
see SN chapter 45.
40. Ps identifies this as the equanimity of the fourth jhana. Ps says that Pukkusati
had already achieved the fourth jhana and was deeply attached to it. The
Buddha first praises this equanimity to inspire Pukkusati's confidence, and
then gradually guides him to the formless attainments and the supramundane
paths and fruits.
41. The sense is: If he attains the base of the infinity of space and passes away while
still attached to it, he would be reborn in the plane of the infinity of space and
would live there for the full lifespan of 20,000 eons specified for that plane. In
the higher three formless planes the lifespan is said to be, respectively, 40,000
eons, 60,000 eons, and 84,000 eons.
42. Ps: This is said in order to show the danger in the formless attainments. By
the one phrase, "This would be conditioned," he shows: "Even though the
lifespan there is 20,000 eons, it is conditioned, fashioned, built up. It is thus
impermanent, unstable, not lasting, transient. It is subject to perishing,
breaking up, and dissolution; it is involved with birth, aging, and death,
founded upon suffering. It is not a shelter, a place of safety, a refuge. Having
passed away there as a worldling, one can still be reborn in the four states of
misery."
43. So n'eva abhisahkharoti nabhisancetayati bhavaya va vibhavaya. The two verbs sug-
gest the notion of volition as a constructive power that builds up and sustains
conditioned existence. Ceasing to will for either existence or nonexistence
shows the extinction of craving for eternal existence and annihilation.
44. Ps says that at this point Pukkusati penetrated three paths and fruits, becom-
ing a nonreturner. He realized that his teacher was the Buddha himself, but he
could not express this realization since the Buddha continued with his dis-
course.
45. This passage shows the arahant's abiding in the Nibbana element with residue
remaining (sa-upadisesa nibbanadhatu); see Text IX,5(5). Though he continues to
experience feelings, he is free from lust toward pleasant feeling, from aversion
toward painful feeling, and from ignorance regarding neutral feeling.
46. That is, he continues to experience feeling only as long as the body with its life
faculty continues, but not beyond that.
47. This refers to his attainment of the Nibbana-element with no residue remain-
ing (anupadisesa nibbanadhatu)—the cessation of all conditioned existence with
his final passing away. See Text IX,5(5).
48. This completes the exposition of the first foundation, the foundation of wis-
dom (panhadhitthana). Ps says that the knowledge of the destruction of all suf-
fering is the wisdom pertaining to the fruit of arahantship.
Notes to pages 411-18 457
49. Ps mentions four kinds of acquisitions (upadhi) here: the five aggregates; defile-
ments; volitional formations; and sensual pleasures.
50. The "tides of conceiving" (mannussava), as the following paragraph will show,
are thoughts and notions originating from the three roots of conceiving—crav-
ing, conceit, and views. The "sage at peace" (muni santo) is the arahant.
51. The thoughts "I shall be" and "1 shall not be" imply the views of eternalism
(continued existence after death) and annihilationism (personal extinction at
death). The alternatives of having physical form and being formless represent
two modes of existence in the afterlife, physical and disembodied; the triad of
being percipient, etc., are three other modes of existence in the afterlife, distin-
guished by their relationship to perception or awareness.
52. That which is not present in him is craving for existence, which leads to a new
birth following death.
53. Satta saddhamma. Faith, moral shame, fear of wrongdoing, learning, energy,
mindfulness, and wisdom. See, e.g., MN 53.11-17.
54. The training in the higher moral discipline, the higher mind, and the higher
wisdom.
55. The ten factors are the eight factors of the Noble Eightfold Path supplemented
by right knowledge and right liberation. See, e.g., MN 65.34 and MN 78.14.
56. The threefold discrimination: "I am better," "I am equal," "I am worse."
57. It is likely that bhikkhu pannavimutto here should be understood as any arahant
disciple, not specifically as the pahnavimutta contrasted with the ubhatobhagavi-
mutta arahant.
58. This sutta is included in the Mahaparinibbana Sutta (at DNII81-83), but with-
out the last paragraph. A much more elaborate version makes up DN 28.
59. Spk identifies "of such qualities" (evamdhamma) as "qualities pertaining to con-
centration" (samadhipakkha dhamma).
60. The ten Tathagata's powers are powers of knowledge. They are analyzed in
detail at Vibh §§808-31. The "wheel of Brahma" is the wheel of the Dhamma.
61. For details, see MN 115.12-19.
62. Ps explains possibility (thana) as the realm, circumstances, time, and effort, fac-
tors that can either impede or reinforce the result. The cause (hetu) is the kamma
itself. This knowledge of the Buddha is illustrated by Texts V,l(l)-(3).
63. This signifies the Buddha's knowledge of the types of conduct that lead to all
future destinies within the round of existence as well as to final liberation. See
MN 12.35-42.
64. Vibh §813 explains that he understands that beings are of inferior and supe-
rior inclinations, and that beings naturally associate with those of similar
inclinations.
65. Vibh §§814-27 gives a detailed analysis. Ps states more concisely that he knows
the superior and inferior disposition of the five faculties of other beings.
66. Vibh §828: The defilement (sankilesa) is a factor causing decline; cleansing
(vodana) is a factor causing excellence; emergence (vutthana) is both cleansing
and rising from an attainment. The eight emancipations (vimokkha) are at DN
15.35, DN 16.3.33, MN 77.22, MN 137.26, etc.; the nine attainments (samapatti)
are the four jhanas, four formless attainments, and the cessation of perception
and feeling.
67. Vesarajja. Ps says this is a name for the joyful knowledge that arises in him
when he reflects upon his absence of timidity in four cases.
458 Notes to page 421
68. Spk says this qualification is made to exclude the devas who are noble ones.
69. Spk: Included within identity (sakkayapariyapanna): included in the five aggre-
gates. When the Buddha teaches them the Dhamma stamped with the three
characteristics, exposing the faults in the round of existence, the fear of knowl-
edge enters into them.
TABLE OF SOURCES
*: excerpt from a longer sutta
t: several suttas combined
Dlgha Nikaya
SUTTA
PTSVOL.&
PAGE
TEXT
TEXT TITLE
PAGE
5*
1134-36
IV,6(6)
bringing tranquillity to the land
141^2
15*
II 58
1,3(3)
the dark chain of causation
36
16*
II 72-77
IV,6(4)
seven principles of social stability
137-39
21*
II276-77
13(2)
why do beings live in hate?
35-36
26*
III 59-63
IV,6(5)
the wheel-turning monarch
139-41
31*
III 180-81,
187-91
IV,1(2)
worshipping the six directions
116-18
Majjhima Nikaya
SUTTA
PTS
VOL.
&
PAGE
TEXT
TEXT TITLE
PAGE
9
146-55
IX,3
a discourse on right view
323-35
10
I 55-63
VIII,8
the four establishments of mind-
fulness
281-90
12*
I 70-72
X,5(4)
the powers and grounds of self-
confidence
417-19
13 184-90
VI,3
properly appraising objects of
attachment
193-99
19*
1117-18
X,5(6)
the man desiring our good
420
20
1118-22
VIII,5
the removal of distracting thoughts
275-78
21*
1126-27,
129
VIII,6
the mind of loving-kindness
278-79
22*
1139-40
X,4(3)
a monk whose crossbar has been
lifted
407-8
459
460 In the Buddha's Words
Majjhima Nikaya (continued)
SUTTA
PTSVOL.&
PAGE
TEXT
TEXT TITLE
PAGE
22*
1140-42 X,l(3)
in the Dhamma well
expounded
386
26*
1160-67
11,3(1)
seeking the supreme state of
sublime peace
54-59
26*
1167-73 11,4
the decision to teach
69-75
27
1175-84
VII,4
the graduated training
241-50
29
1192-97
VII,1(2)
the heartwood of the spiritual
life
233-37
36*
I 240-49
11,3(2)
the realization of the three
true knowledges
59-67
39*
I 274-80
VII,5
the higher stages of training
with similes
250-53
41
I 286-90 V,l(2)
why beings fare as they do
after death
156-61
47
1317-20 111,4
investigate the teacher himself
93-96
54*
1364-66
VI,4(1)
cutting off all affairs
199-202
63
1426-32
VII,1(1)
the arrow of birth, aging, and
death
230-33
64*
1434-37
X,3(l)
abandoning the five lower
fetters
396-98
70*
I 477-79
X,l(5)
seven kinds of noble persons
390-92
72*
1486-88
IX,5(6)
the fire and the ocean
367-69
73*
1490-93 X,l(4)
the completeness of the
teaching
386-90
75*
1504-8
VI,4(2)
the fever of sensual pleasures
202-5
82*
II 65-82
VI,6
four summaries of the
Dhamma
207-13
93
II147-54
IV,6(3)
purification is for all four
castes
132-37
Majjhima Nikaya (continued)
Table of Sources 461
SUTTA
PTS VOL. &
PAGE
TEXT
TEXT TITLE
PAGE
95*
II168-77
111,5
steps toward the realization
of truth
96-103
99*
II206-8
V,5(2)
the four divine abodes
177-78
104*
II 245-^7
IV,6(1)
six roots of dispute
130-31
104*
II250-51
IV,6(2)
six principles of cordiality
131-32
109
III 15-19
IX,4(l)(b)
a catechism on the aggregates
338^1
123
III 118-20;
122-24
11,2
the Buddha's conception
and birth
50-54
135
III 202-6
V,l(3)
kamma and its fruits
161-66
140*
III 240-43
IX,4(3)(c)
the six elements
350-53
140*
III 244-17
X,4(7)
the sage at peace
410-12
146*
III 274-75
IX,1(2)
wisdom as a knife
321
Samyutta Nikaya
SUTTA
PTS VOL. &
PAGE
TEXT
TEXT TITLE
PAGE
3:3
I 71 <163-64>
U<1)
aging and death
26
3:25
1100-102
<224-29>
14(2)
the simile of the mountain
26-28
12:1
II1-2
IX,4(4)(a)
what is dependent origination?
353
12:15
II16-17
LX,4(4)(d)
a teaching by the middle
356-57
12:20
II 25-27
IX,4(4)(b)
the stableness of the Dhamma
353-55
12:33
II 56-59
IX,4(4)(c)
forty-four cases of knowledge
355-56
462 In the Buddha's Words
Samyutta Nikaya (continued)
SUTTA
PTS VOL. &
PAGE
TEXT
TEXT TITLE
PAGE
12:38
II 65-66
IX,4(4)(e)
the continuance of
consciousness
357-58
12:44
II 73-74
IX,4(4)(f)
the origin and passing of the
world
358-59
12:65 II104-7
11,3(3)
the ancient city
67-69
13:1
II133-34
X,2(3)
the breakthrough to the
Dhamma
394
14:1
II140
1X4(3X3)
the eighteen elements
349
14:37-
39+
II175-77
LX,4(3)(b)
the four elements
349-50
15:1 II178
14(1)
grass and sticks
37
15:2
II179
1,4(2)
balls of clay
37-38
15:3
II179-80
VI,9(1)
the stream of tears
218-19
15:5 II181-82
1,4(3)
the mountain
38
15:8
II183-84
1,4(4)
the river Ganges
38-39
15:13
II187-89
VI,9(2)
the stream of blood
219-20
22:7
III 15-18
1,2(3)
anxiety due to change
33-35
22:45
III 44-45
IX,4(l)(d)
impermanent, suffering,
nonself
342-43
22:56
III 58-61
IX,4(l)(a)
phases of the aggregates
335-37
22:58
III 65-66
X,5(l)
the Buddha and the arahant
413-14
22:59
III 66-68
IX,4(l)(c)
the characteristic of nonself
341-42
22:76*
III 83-84
X,4(8)
happy indeed are the
arahants
412-13
22:78
III 84-85
X,5(7)
the lion
420-21
22:82
III 100-103
IX,4(l)(b)
a catechism on the aggregates
338-41
22:89
III 126-32 X,4(l)
removing the residual conceit
"I am"
402-6
Table of Sources 463
Samyutta Nikaya (continued)
SUTTA
PTS VOL. &
PAGE
TEXT
TEXT TITLE
PAGE
22:95
III 140-42
IX,4(l)(e)
a lump of foam
343-45
22:99
II149-50
1,4(5)
dog on a leash
39-40
25:1
III 225
X,2(2)
entering the fixed course of
Tightness
393
28:1-9+
III 235-38
VIII,10
the achievement of mastery
296-98
35:26
V17-18
IX,4(2)(a)
full understanding
345
35:28
IV19-20
IX,4(2)(b)
burning
346
35:85
IV
54
IX,4(2)(d)
empty is the world
347
35:147-
49+
IV 133-35
IX,4(2)(c)
suitable for attaining Nibbana
346-17
35:234
IV 166-68
IX,4(2)(e)
consciousness too is nonself
348-49
36:6
IV 207-10
1,2(1)
the dart of painful feeling
31-32
38:1
IV 251-52
IX,5(1)
what is Nibbana?
364
42:11
IV 327-30
111,3
the visible origin and the
passing away of suffering
91-93
43:1-
44+
IV 359-73
IX,5(2)
thirty-three synonyms for
Nibbana
364-65
45:2
V2-3
VI1,3
good friendship
240-11
45:8
V8-10
VII,2
analysis of the eightfold path
239-40
45:41-
48+
V 27-29
VII,1(3)
the fading away of lust
238
46:3
V 69-70
X,3(4)
five kinds of nonreturners
401-2
46:55
V 121-26
VIII,3
the hindrances to mental
development
270-72
47:12
V 159-61
X,5(3)
Sariputta's lofty utterance
415-17
48:18
V202
X,l(2)
differentiation by faculties
385
464 In the Buddha's Words
Satnyutta Nikaya (continued)
SUTTA
PTS VOL. &
PAGE
TEXT
TEXT TITLE
PAGE
48:53
V 229-30
X,4(2)
the trainee and the arahant
406-7
54:13
V 328-33
VIII,9
mindfulness of breathing
290-95
55:1 V342
X,2(5)
better than sovereignty over
the earth
395
55:2
V 343^4
X,2(4)
the four factors of a
stream-enterer
394-95
55:3
V 344^6
X,3(3)
six things that partake of true
knowledge
400-1
55:5
V 410-11 X,2(l)
the four factors leading to
stream-entry
392-93
56:11 V 420-24
11,5
the first discourse
75-78
56:20
V 430-31
IX,4(5)(b)
these four truths are actual
359-60
56:21
V 431-32
IX,4(5)(d)
because of not understanding
361
56:24
V 433-34
IX,4(5)(a)
the truths of all Buddhas
359
56:25
V434
IX,4(5)(g)
the destruction of the taints
363-64
56:31
V 437-38
IX,4(5)(c)
a handful of leaves
360
56:32
V 442^3
IX,4(5)(f)
making the breakthrough
362-63
56:38
V 442-43
X,5(5)
the manifestation of great light
419
56:42
V 448-50
IX,4(5)(e)
the precipice
361-62
Table of Sources 465
Anguttara Nikaya
SUTTA
PTS VOL. &
PAGE
TEXT
TEXT TITLE PAGE
l:iii,l,
2,3,4,9,
lOt
15-6
VIII,1
the mind is the key
267
l:xiii,
l,5,6t
I 22-23
11,1
one person
50
l:xvii,l,
3, 7,9t
I 30-32
VI,7(1)
a miscellany on wrong view
213-14
2:iii,10
161
VIII,2(1)
serenity and insight
267-68
2:iv,2
I
61-62
IV,2(l)(b)
repaying one's parents 119
2:iv,6*
166
1,3(1)
the origin of conflict
35
3:14
1109-10
V,l(l)
the king of the Dhamma
115-16
3:35*
1138-40
1,1(3)
the divine messengers
29-30
3:65
1188-93
11,2
no dogmas or blind belief 88-91
3:69*
I
201-2
1,3(4)
the roots of violence and
oppression
36-37
3:100
§§i-io
1253-56
VIII,4
the refinement of the mind
273-75
3:101
§3
1259
VI,2(2)
I set out seeking
192-93
3:101
§§1-2
I 258-59
VI,2(1)
before my enlightenment
192
3:102
1260
VI,2(3)
if there were no gratification
193
3:129
1282-83
111,1
not a secret doctrine
88
4:23
II 23-24
X,5(8)
why is he called the Tathagata?
421-23
4:34
II34-35
V,2(3)
the best kinds of confidence
168-69
4:53
II57-59
IV,2(2)(a)
different kinds of marriages
119-20
4:55
II 61-62
IV,2(2)(b)
how to be united in future lives
121-22
4:57
II 62-63
V,3(3)
the gift of food
170
4:61
II 65-68
IV,4(2)
the proper use of wealth
126-27
4:62
II 69-70
IV,4(3)
family man's happiness
127-28
466 In the Buddha's Words
Anguttara Nikaya (continued)
SUTTA
PTS VOL. &
PAGE
TEXT
TEXT TITLE
PAGE
4:63
II 70 IV,2(l)(a) respect for parents
118-19
4:94
II93-95
VIII,2(3)
four kinds of persons
269-70
4:125
II128-29 VI,8
from the divine realms to the
infernal
216-18
4:128 II131-32
VI,1 four wonderful things
191-92
4:143
II139
IX,1(1)
wisdom as a light 321
4:169 II155-56
X,3(2)
four kinds of persons
398-400
4:170
II156-57
Vin,2(2)
four ways to arahantship
268-69
4:232
II230-32
V,l(l)
four kinds of kamma
155-56
5:148 III 172-73
V,3(4)
a superior person's gifts
170-71
5:177
III 208
IV,4(1)
avoiding wrong livelihood
126
6:10
III 284-88
Vffl,7
the six recollections
279-81
7:59
IV 91-94
IV,2(2)(c)
seven kinds of wives
122-24
7:70
IV 136-39 VI,5 life is short and fleeting
206-7
8:2
IV 151-55 IX,2
the conditions for wisdom
322-23
8:6
IV 157-59
1,2(2)
the vicissitudes of life 32
8:33 IV 236-37
V3(2)
reasons for giving
169
8:35
IV 239^1
V3(6)
rebirth on account of giving
171-72
8:36
IV 241-43 V2(2)
three bases of merit
167
8:39 IV 245-17
V,4(l)
the five precepts 172-74
8:41
IV 248-51 V4(2)
the uposatha observance
174-76
Table of Sources 467
Anguttara Nikaya (continued)
SUTTA
PTS VOL. &
PAGE
TEXT
TEXT TITLE PAGE
8:49
V 269-71
IV5
the woman of the home 128-30
8:54
IV 281-85
IV,3
present welfare, future welfare 124-26
8:59
IV 292
x,i(i)
eight persons worthy of gifts
385
9:7*
IV 370-71
X,4(4)
nine things an arahant
cannot do
408
9:20
IV 393-96
V5(3)
insight surpasses all 178-79
9:26*
IV 404-5
X,4(5)
a mind unshaken
408-9
10:90
V174-75
X,4(6)
the ten powers of an arahant
monk
409
Udana
SUTTA
PTS VOL. &
PAGE
TEXT
TEXT TITLE
PAGE
6:4 67-69
VI,7(2)
the blind men and the elephant
214-15
8:1
80
IX,5(3)
there is that base
365-66
8:3
80-81
IX,5(4)
the unborn
366
468 In the Buddha's Words
Itivuttaka
SUTTA
PTS VOL. &
PAGE
TEXT TEXT TITLE
PAGE
22
14-15 V,2(l) meritorious deeds
166-67
26 18-19 V,3(l) if people knew the result
of giving
169
27 19-21
V,5(l)
the development of loving-
kindness
176-77
44
38 1X5(5) the two Nibbana elements 366-67
49
43^4
VI,7(3)
held by two kinds of views 215-16
84
78-79
X,5(2)
for the welfare of many 414-15
107
111
V,3(5)
mutual support 171
112
121-23
X,5(8)
why is he called the Tathagata? 421-23
GLOSSARY
Arahant. A "worthy one"; one who has eliminated all defilements and
attained full liberation in this very life.
Bodhisatta. A future Buddha, one destined to attain unsurpassed perfect
enlightenment; specifically, it is the term the Buddha uses to refer to him-
self in the period prior to his enlightenment, both in past lives and in his
last life before he attained enlightenment.
Brahma. According to the brahmins, the supreme personal deity, but in
the Buddha's teaching, a powerful deity who rules over a high divine state
of existence called the brahma world; more generally, the word denotes the
class of superior devas inhabiting the form realm.
Deva. A deity or god; the beings inhabiting the heavenly worlds, usually
in the sense-sphere realm but more broadly in all three realms.
Dhamma. The cosmic principle of truth, lawfulness, and virtue discov-
ered, fathomed, and taught by the Buddha; the Buddha's teaching as an
expression of that principle; the teaching that leads to enlightenment and
liberation.
Jambudipa. Lit., "rose-apple island," the Indian subcontinent.
fhana. States of deep meditative concentration marked by the one-pointed
fixation of the mind upon its object; the suttas distinguish four stages of
jhana.
Kamma. Volitional action, considered particularly as a moral force capable
of producing, for the agent, results that correspond to the ethical quality of
the action; thus good kamma produces happiness, and bad kamma pro-
duces suffering.
Kappa. An eon or cosmic cycle, the period of time it takes for a world sys-
tem to arise, evolve, dissolve, and persist in a state of disintegration before
a new cycle begins.
469
470 In the Buddha's Words
Mara. "The Evil One" or "Tempter"; a malevolent deity who tries to pre-
vent people from practicing the Dhamma and thereby escaping the round
of rebirths.
Nibbana. The final goal of the Buddha's teaching; the unconditioned state
beyond the round of rebirths, to be attained by the destruction of the
defilements.
Patimokkha. The code of monastic rules binding on members of the
Buddhist monastic order.
Samsara. Lit., the "wandering," the round of rebirths without discoverable
beginning, sustained by ignorance and craving.
Sangha. The spiritual community, which is twofold: (1) the monastic
Sahgha, the order of monks and nuns; and (2) the noble Sangha, the spir-
itual community of noble disciples who have reached the stages of world-
transcending realization.
Tathagata. Meaning "Thus Come One" or "Thus Gone One," the epithet
the Buddha uses most often to refer to himself; occasionally it is used as a
general designation for a person who has reached the highest attainment.
Uposatha. The Buddhist observance days, falling on the days of the full
moon and new moon, when the monks gather to recite the Patimokkha
and lay people often visit monasteries and temples to undertake the eight
precepts.
Yojana. An ancient Indian measurement of distance, approximately six
miles.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PRIMARY SOURCES
Bodhi, Bhikkhu, trans. The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation
of the Samyutta Nikaya. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2000.
Ireland, John D., trans. The Udana and The Itivuttaka: Inspired Utterances of
the Buddha and The Buddha's Sayings. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Pub-
lication Society, 1997.
Nanamoli, Bhikkhu, trans. The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha: A
Translation of the Majjhima Nikaya. Edited and revised by Bhikkhu
Bodhi. 2nd ed. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2001.
Nyanaponika Thera and Bhikkhu Bodhi, trans, and ed. Numerical Dis-
courses of the Buddha: An Anthology ofSuttasfrom the Ahguttara Nikaya.
Walnut Creek, Calif.: AltaMira Press, 1999.
Walshe, Maurice, trans. The Long Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of
the Dlgha Nikaya. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1995. (Originally pub-
lished under the title, Thus Have I Heard, 1987.)
OTHER WORKS REFERRED TO:
Adikaram, E.W. Early History of Buddhism in Ceylon. 1946. Reprint. Dehi-
wala, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Cultural Centre, 1994.
Analayo. Satipatthana: The Direct Path to Realization. Birmingham, UK:
Windhorse, 2003.
Choong Mun-keat (Wei-keat). The Fundamental Teachings of Early Buddhism:
A Comparative Study based on the Sutrdnga Portion of the Pali Samyutta-
Nikaya and the Chinese Samyuktagama. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Ver-
lag, 2000.
Gethin, Rupert. The Foundations of Buddhism. Oxford and New York:
Oxford University Press, 1998.
Jayatilleke, K.N. Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge. London: George Allen
& Unwin, 1963.
Malalasekera, G.P The Pali Literature of Ceylon. 1928. Reprint. Kandy, Sri
Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1994.
Marine, Joy. "Categories of Sutta in the Pali Nikayas and Their Implica-
471
472 In the Buddha's Words
tions for Our Appreciation of the Buddhist Teaching and Literature."
Journal of the Pali Text Society, XV: 29-87.
Minh Chau, Bhiksu Thich. The Chinese Madhyama Agama and the Pali
Majjhima Nikdya. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1991.
Nanamoli, Bhikkhu. Life of the Buddha according to the Pali Canon. 3rd ed.
Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1992.
Nanamoli, Bhikkhu. Mindfulness of Breathing (Anapanasati). Kandy, Sri
Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1964.
Nanamoli, Bhikkhu, trans. The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga).
Colombo, Sri Lanka: M.D. Gunasena, 1964.
Nanananda, Bhikkhu. Concept and Reality in Early Buddhist Thought. Kandy,
Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1972.
Norman, K.R. Pali Literature. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 1983.
Nyanaponika Thera and Hellmuth Hecker. Great Disciples of the Buddha.
Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1997.
Nyanaponika Thera. The Heart of Buddhist Meditation. London: Rider, 1962.
Nyanaponika Thera. The Vision of Dhamma. 2nd ed. Kandy, Sri Lanka:
Buddhist Publication Society, 1994.
Soma Thera. The Way of Mindfulness. The Satipatthana Sutta and Its Commen-
tary. 1941.4th ed. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1975.
Pali editions of the Nikayas, as well as translations, textbooks for the
study of Pali, Pali grammars, and Pali-English dictionaries can be obtained
from the Pali Text Society (PTS). For a catalog, write to 73 Lime Walk,
Headington, Oxford OX3 7AD, UK, or e-mail: pts@palitext.com Website:
www.palitext.com. In North America PTS books are available from Pari-
yatti, 867 Larmon Road, Onalaska, WA 98570. Telephone: (360) 978-4998.
Fax: (360) 978-4557. Website: www.pariyatti.com.
An important Asian source for English translations from the Nikayas,
as well as other works relating to Early Buddhism, is the Buddhist Pub-
lication Society (BPS) in Sri Lanka. For a catalog, write to P.O. Box 61,54
Sangharaja Mawatha, Kandy, Sri Lanka, or e-mail: bps@sltnet.lk.
Valuable online resources for the study of the Nikayas, including alter-
native translations of many suttas included in this anthology, can be found
on the website "Access to Insight": www.accesstoinsight.org. An introduc-
tory essay offered by this website, "Befriending the Suttas" by John Bullitt,
provides helpful information on how to read the suttas to best advantage.
INDEX OF SUBJECTS
Page references in italics are to occurrences of the indexed term in one of
the introductions.
Acquisitions {upadhi), 70, 411, 430 II
n.25,
457
X
n.49
Action, right (samma kammanta), 239
Agamas, 6, 7,13-24
Aggregates, five
(panc'upadanakkhandha), 22-23,25,
305-9, 335^5, 403-5; analyzed,
336-37; clinging, and, 338; contem-
plation of, 287-88, 323, 405, 443
VIII n.47; impermanent, suffering,
nonself, as, 341-43; viewed as self:
34, 39-40; void, as, 343-44
Aging-and-death (jaramarana), 19-21,
26-28, 68, 326-27. See also Death;
Old Age
Agitation (paritassana), 33-35,4261 n.9
Aids to enlightenment (bodhipakkhiya
dhamma), 456 X n.39
Air element (vayodhatu), 351. See also
Elements (four)
All (sabba), 345, 346, 357
Altruistic joy {mudita), 90,154,178,
217
Analytical knowledges (patisam-
bhida), 50, 428 II n.3
Anger (kodha), 163
Annihilationism (ucchedavada),
189-90, 215, 325, 450 IX n.46,
450-51IX n.47, 457 X n.51
Arahant(s), 5, 26,138,179, 243,
268-69, 366, 367, 373, 374, 375-76,
379, 380-81, 385, 386,387,403,
425-26 I n.2, 426 I n.8,446IX n.12,
452 X n.5; equanimity of, 408-9,
410-11, 456 X nn.45^16; for the wel-
fare of many, 415; happiness of,
412-13; metaphors for, 407-8; moral
discipline of, 174-75,408; sage at
peace, as, 412; ten powers of, 409;
trainee, and, 304-5, 306, 390,406-7,
455 X nn.35-36,455 X n.38
Arrogance (atimana), 164-65
Ascetics and brahmins
(samanabrahmana), 60-61,118,127,
140,158,160,164,165,171'-72,
196-97,198,199, 336-37, 349-50,
355-56, 361-62, 418-19
Asuras, 435 V n.6
Attained to view (ditthippatta), 377,
391,
453 X n.16
Balanced living (samajivita), 124,125
Birth (jati), 26, 327
Bodhisatta, 44-45, 51-54, 55, 59, 67,
192,
428
II n.2
Body, contemplation of (kayanupas-
sana), 263,282-85,292,441 VIII
n.26
Body-witness (kayasakkhi), 377,391,
453 X
n.15
Brahma world (brahmaloka), 78, 254,
177,
290,
436
V
n.17,
436
V
n.21
Brahmins, 97-98, 222-23,132-37
Buddha: 3, 43-49, 86,107-8,151,179,
359,381-84,413-23; arahants, and,
413-17; ascetic practices, 61-64;
conception and birth of, 51-54;
confidence in, 168, 242-43, 394;
decision to teach, 69-74; first dis-
course, 75-78; good friend, as, 241;
good report of, 88; quest for
enlightenment, 55-69; recollection
of, 279. See also Tathagata
Careful attention (yoniso manasikara),
19, 47, 67-69, 392
Caste system, 222-23,132-37, 433 III
n.27
Celibacy (brahmacariya), 174, 245, 376
Cessation: perception and feeling, of
(sannavedayitanirodha), 265, 297,
445 VIII n.64; suffering, of, 68-69,
473
474 In the Buddha's Words
76-77, 326, 353, 358; world, of, 357,
450-51IX n.47
Clear comprehension (sampajanna),
246, 283,442 VIII n.34
Clinging (upadana), 22, 33-34, 306-8,
328-29, 338, 447IX n.16, 448 IX
n.29
Compassion: (1) (anukampa), 50,
158-59,174, 245, 278, 414-15; (2)
(karuna, karunna), 90, 254,178,216
Conceit (mana), 296-97,340-41,
380-81, 405, 408, 445 VIII n.63, 446
IX
n.12
Conceivings (mannita), 412,457 X
nn.50-51
Concentration (samadhi), 5, 225, 227,
235-37, 257, 273-74, 303; right con-
centration (samma samadhi), 240
Conduct: righteous (samacariya),
158-61; unrighteous (visamacariya),
157-58. See also Moral discipline
Confidence (pasada), 168-69, 242,378,
394-95, 400-1, 454 X n.23
Conflict, 35-37,195-96. See also Dis-
putes
Consciousness (vinnana), 67-68,
332-33, 337, 339, 344, 348, 352,
357-58, 429 II n.20, 429-30 II n.21,
447IX n.20, 449 IX n.37
Contact (phassa), 330-31, 336-37, 339,
352-53, 447IX n.18
Contentment (santutthi), 246
Cordiality, six principles of (cha
saraniya dhamma), 112,131-32
Corpse meditations, 263, 284-85, 443
VIII nn.37-38
Covetousness (abhijjha), 158,159
Craving (tanha), 36, 37-40, 76,139,
210, 212-13, 218-20, 325, 326, 329,
407, 447IX n.17
Death {marana), 19-20, 30,188,
197-98, 206. See also Aging-and-
death
Dependent origination (paticca-
samuppada), 47, 67-69, 70, 312-16,
353-59,429-30II nn.20-23,430II
n.25
Desire (chanda), 92, 93,100,101,
338,
405
Destruction of life (panatipata), 157,
158-59,162-63,174^ 245
Devas, 35, 52, 53, 77-78,149-50,155,
156,160-61,167,172,175-76,
216-17, 281, 418,421,423
Dhamma, 45, 69-70, 96, 99-100,108,
115,140,151,184-85, 357, 386, 394,
433 IV n.l; breakthrough to
(dhammabhisamaya), 378,394,453 X
n.22; desire for (dhammaraga),
397-98, 454 X n.29; recollection of,
279-80; taught by middle, 368;
vision of (dhammacakkhu), 77,378,
394; wheel of (dhammacakka),
48-49, 73,116,428 II 8, 457 X 60
Dhamma-follower (dhammanusari),
375,
386,
393,
452 X
n.3,
453 X n.18
Direct knowledge (abhinna), 228,
274-75, 440 VIII n.17
Disputes (vivada), 112,130-31,214-15
Divine abodes (brahmavihara), 184,
260,
432 III n.6
Divine ear (dibbasota), 274
Divine eye (dibbacakkhu). See Passing
away and rebirth of beings, knowl-
edge of
Divine messengers (devaduta), 20,
29-30, 426 I n.3
Doubt (vicikiccha), 84, 89,271-72,374.
See also Fetters; Hindrances, five
Dullness and drowsiness (thinamid-
dha), 271, 272. See also Hindrances,
five
Earth element (pathavidhatu), 350. See
also Elements (four)
Effort, right (samma vayama), 239
Elements (dhatu), 311-12; eighteen,
349; four, 284, 339, 349-50, 440-41
VIII n.19, 442-43 VIII n.36; six,
350-53, 449 IX nn.39-41
Enlightenment (sambodha, sambodhi),
46-47, 60-61, 64, 68, 86; factors of,
seven (satta bojjhahga), 288-89,
293-95,416-17,445 VIII n.60; unsur-
passed perfect (anuttara samma sam-
bodhi), 77,192, 335,416-17
Envy (issa), 163-64
Eon (kappa), 24, 38, 65, 250,166, 290,
216-17, 248
Index of Subjects 475
Equanimity (upekkha), 90, 254,178,
200, 217, 410, 437 VI n.4, 444-45
VIII n.59
Escape (nissarana), 31-32, 270-72, 426
I n.6, 440 VIII n.14. See also Gratifi-
cation, danger, escape
Eternalism (sassatavada), 189-90, 315,
450 IX n.46, 450-51IX n.47, 457 X
n.51
Existence: (1) (atthita), 356-57, 450 IX
n.46, 450-51IX n.47; (2) (bhava),
215,
328,
446
IX
n.15
Faculties: restraint of sense
(indriyasamvara), 246, 322; spiritual,
373, 381, 385, 399-400, 406-7
Faith (saddha), 86-87, 96, 98-99,100,
222,119,121,125,129, 252, 233-36,
244
Faith-follower (saddhanusari), 375,
386,
393,
452 X
n.3,
453 X n.18
False speech (musa vada), 157,159,
174,
245
Family, 220,118-24
Fear (bhaya), 95, 421
Feeling (vedana), 31-32,187-88,193,
194,198-99, 329-30, 352; aggregate
of (vedanakkhandha), 336, 339,
343-44, 449 IX n.34; contemplation
of (vedananupassana), 285-86,292,
443 VIII nn.39-40
Fetters (samyojana), 268, 374, 378, 379,
380, 386^ 396-98, 407, 452 X nn.6-7
Fire element (tejodhatu), 351. See also
Elements (four)
Fixed course of Tightness (sammatta-
niyama), 378, 393, 453 X n.19
Form (rupa): 187,193,194,197-98;
aggregate of (rupakkhandha), 336,
339, 343, 448-49 IX n.33; realm
(rupadhatu), 149-50, 374. See also
Name-and-form
Formations (sankhara), 70, 219, 220,
259, 269-70. See also Volitional for-
mations
Formless states (aruppa), 228, 257,
390-91; formless realm
(arupadhatu), 149,150
Foundations, four (adhitthana),
411-12
Four Noble Truths (cattari
ariyasaccani), 48-49, 66-67, 76-77,
233, 249, 289, 304, 316-17, 325-26,
359-64, 406, 419, 431II nn.32-35,
446
IX
n.ll
Friendship, good (kalyanamittata),
117-18,124-25, 225, 240-41
Full understanding (parinna), 193,
196-97,198,199, 345, 436 VI n.l
Generosity (caga), 111, 119,121,125,
126,130, 280-81
Giving (dana), 151,152-53,164,167,
169-72
Going forth (pabbajja), 208-10, 226,
233-37, 244^5
Gradual training (anupubbasikkha),
226-29, 244-50, 250-53
Gratification, danger, escape (assada,
adinava, nissarana), 186-87,192-93,
194-99, 309, 340, 349
Greed, hatred, delusion (lobha, dosa,
moha), 23-24, 36-37, 85, 89,90,
99-100, 246, 324, 4271 n.16, 432 III
n.5
Happiness (sukha), 127-28,166,
175-76. See also Welfare and happi-
ness
Harsh speech (pharusa vaca), 158,159,
245
Heaven (sagga), 66, 91,123,127,134,
249,156,157,160,162-65, 203, 249.
See also Devas
Hell (niraya), 66,123,133, 249,155,
156,157,162-65,196, 213-14,
216-17, 248^9
Hindrances, five (nivarana), 227, 247,
250-51, 259-60, 270-72, 286-87,
416-17, 440 VIII n.14, 444 VIII n.59
Human beings (manussa), 149,156,
162-66,167, 206-7
Husbands and wives, 220,117,
119-24
"I am" (asmi); 403-5, 412
Identity view (sakkayaditthi), 308,
339-40, 374, 380, 427 I n.10
Idle chatter (samphappalapa), 158,159,
245
476 In the Buddha's Words
Ignorance (avijja), 37-40, 66-67,
218-20, 267, 268, 308, 333-34, 381,
407, 439 VIII n.5, 447-48 IX n.22
Illness, 19, 29-30,163,197, 211
111 will (byapada), 158,159-60, 270-71,
272, 374
"I"-making (ahamkara), 296-98,
340-41, 445 VIII n.63
Impermanence (anicca), 154,179,192,
198, 260, 292, 293, 308-9, 341-43,
347, 421, 444 VIII n.57, 444-45 VIII
n.59
Infinite consciousness, base of
(vihhanahcayatana), 297, 397-98
Infinite space, base of
(akasanahcayatana), 297,397
Insight (vipassana), 5, 254,178-79,
258-59, 267-70, 439 VIII n.4, 439
VIII n.7, 439 VIII nn.9-11,440 VIII
n.12, 444 VIII n.57, 444-45 VIII n.59
Intention, right (samma sahkappa), 239
Jhana, 47, 64, 65,149-50,198, 227, 257,
258, 396-97, 399^00, 439 VIII n.4,
439 VIII n.10; footprints of
Tathagata, as, 247-48; right concen-
tration, as, 240; similes for, 251-52;
without "I" and "mine," 296-97
Kamma, 4, 20,145-51,155-66, 435-36
V n.14, 436 V n.15, 436 V n.21
Killing. See Destruction of life
Knowledge: principle and entail-
ment, of (dhamme nana, anvaye
nana), 355-56, 450 IX nn.44-45;
vision, and (hanadassana), 236, 237
Labor relations, 118
Liberated: by faith (saddhavimutta),
377, 391, 453 X n.17; by wisdom
(pannavimutta), 376, 390-91,414,
453 X n.14; in both ways (ubha-
tobhagavimutta), 376, 390, 453 X
n.13
Liberation (vimutti), 59, 67, 75, 77,
161,176-77, 237, 249, 268, 275, 295,
387, 414, 439 VIII n.6
Lifespan (ayuppamana), 150,162,170,
175-76, 216-17
Livelihood, right (samma ajiva),
110-11,126-28, 239
Loving-kindness (metta), 90,131,134,
154,166,176-77,178,179, 216, 260,
278-79, 440 VIII n.19, 441 VIII n.21
Lust (raga), 31, 267-68; fading away
of, 238, 268, 438 VII n.7; lust,
hatred, delusion (raga, dosa, moha),
279-81, 346, 364-65, 411-12 (See
also Greed, hatred, delusion); sen-
sual lust (kamaraga), 270, 272, 374
Malicious speech (pisuna vaca),
157-58,159, 245
Marriage. See Husbands and wives
Meditation (bhavana), 151,153-54,
167,176-78, 257
Merit (punna), 4,145,151-54,166-67,
168-69,172-74,176-77
Middle way (majjhima patipada), 48,
75-76
Mind (citta), 257-58, 265, 292-93; con-
templation of (cittanupassana), 286,
292-93, 443 VIII nn.41-43; higher
(adhicitta), 257,273, 275,440 VIII
n.18; mind-reading, 274
Mindfulness (sati): body, of (kayagata
sati), 139, 365; breathing, of
(anapanasati), 260,264-65,282,441
VIII n.28, 442 VIII nn.29-32; four
establishments of (cattaro
satipatthana), 261-65, 281-90,
291-93, 416-17, 456 X n.39; right
mindfulness (samma sati), 239^10
Moral discipline (sila), 111, 119,120,
121,125-26,129-30,132,151,153,
167,172-76, 234-37, 245-46, 257,
280, 378, 395
Name-and-form (namariipa), 67-68,
331-32, 337, 339, 429 II n.20, 429-30
II n.21, 447IX n.19
Neither-perception-nor-
nonperception
(n'evasahnanasannayatana), base of
57, 58, 297, 428 II n.13
Nibbana, 4, 55-56, 59, 70, 75,168,
183-84, 216-17, 224, 238, 317-19,
346-47, 364-69, 390, 397-98, 411,
430 II n.22, 430 II n.25, 446 IX n.6,
452 IX n.57, 455 X n.38; attained in
Index of Subjects 477
four ways, 398-99; attained in
seven ways, 401-2; two elements
of, 319, 366-67, 445 IX n.5, 456 X
n.45, 456 X n.47
Nikayas, 7, 22-24
Noble disciple (ariyasavaka), 21-23,
31, 33, 34-35, 216-17, 279-81,
323-35, 340, 354-55, 355-56, 377,
394-95, 426 I n.8
Noble Eightfold Path (ariya atthangika
magga), 4, 48, 69, 75-76, 247,168,
224-25, 238, 325-35, 336-37, 364,
420; analysis of, 239-40; good
friendship, and, 241; stream-entry,
and, 393
Noble person (ariyapuggala): eight
types: 373-74, 385; seven types:
376-77, 390-92
Nonreturner (anagami), 150,179, 373,
374, 376, 379-81, 385, 386, 387-88,
397-98, 401-2, 454-55 X n.33
Nonself (anatta), 308-9, 341-43, 347,
348, 448 IX n.32
Nothingness, base of
(akihcannayatana), 56, 57, 297, 398,
428-29 II n.ll, 429 II n.12
Nutriment (ahara), 325,336,446IX n.13
Old age (jara), 29,197, 211. See also
Aging-and-death
Once-returner (sakadagami), 179, 373,
374, 378, 385, 386
Origin (samudaya): suffering, of, 68,
76, 353, 357; world, of, 356, 358,
421,450-51 X n.47
Paccekabuddha, 179, 436 V n.23
Painful feeling (dukkha vedana), 21,
31. See also Feeling
Pali Canon, 9-22
Parents and children, 220,117-19
Passing away and rebirth of beings,
knowledge of (sattanam cutupapat-
tihana), 47, 66, 248-49, 253, 275
Past lives, knowledge of
(pubbenivasanussatihana), 47, 65-66,
248,252-53,274-75
Path and fruition (magga-phala), 452 X
n.l, 453 X n.20
Patimokkha, 322, 446 IX n.8
Peace (upasama), 411-12
Perception (sanna), 205, 336-37, 339,
344, 449 IX n.35
Phenomena, contemplation of
(dhammanupassana), 263, 286-89,
293
Pitakas, 20-22
Political teachings, 223-24,137^2
Postures (iriyapatha), 282-83
Precepts (sila, sikkhapada): eight: 253,
174-76; five: 120,126,129-30, 253,
173-74,179; monastic: 245-46, 257
Pupils and teachers, 117
Pure abodes (suddhavasa), 374
Rebirth (upapatti), 66, 245, 248-52,
155-56,156-57,158,160-61,
162-66,167,171-72,175-76,
216-17, 248-49, 435 V n.7, 435 V
nn.13-14
Recollections, six (cha anussati), 261,
279-81
Refuge, going for (saranagamana), 91,
161,173,179, 250, 432 III n.8
Relinquishment (caga), 411
Restlessness and remorse (uddhacca-
kukkucca), 271, 272. See also Hin-
drances, five
Samsara, 3, 4, 24-25, 37-40, 218-20,
407
Sahgha, 222, 222, 223, 252,152-53,
168,179, 226, 280, 394, 435 V n.8
Secret doctrines, 82-83, 88
Self, view of. See also Identity view
Sense bases, six (sallayatana), 288,
309-22, 331, 345^49
Sense-sphere realm (kamadhatu),
149-50
Sensual pleasures (kama), 31, 35,
60-61, 95,187,188,193-97,199-205
Serenity (samatha), 5, 257, 258-59,
267-70, 439 VIII n.4, 439 VIII n.7,
439 VIII nn.9-10, 440 VIII n.12
Sexual misconduct (kamesu
micchacara), 157,159
Social teachings, 23-24,109-13,
130-42
Space element (akasadhatu), 351-52
Speech, right (samma vaca), 239
478 In the Buddha's Words
Spiritual life (brahmacariya), 232, 237,
238,240-41, 388-89
Spiritual power (iddhi), 274
Stream-enterer (sotapanna), 373, 374,
378, 385, 393, 394-95, 441 VIII n.23,
453 X
n.21
Stream-entry (sotapatti), 86, 87, 111,
377-78, 392-95
Suffering (dukkha), 83-84, 85, 89,
92-93, 357, 362, 363, 451IX n.48;
characteristic, as, 308-9, 341-43,
347; danger, as, 192,198; noble
truth of, 49, 76, 326
Supramundane. See also World-
transcending teaching/path
Taints (asava), 229, 270, 334-35,
363-64, 397-98, 409, 447-48 IX
n.22; destruction of, knowledge of
(asavakkhayahana), 47, 66-67, 228,
229,249,253
Taking what is not given
(adinnadana), 157,159,174, 245
Tathagata, 44,50-51,54, 74,94-96,125,
129,168,191-92,244,367,381-84,
413-22; existence after death?,
230-33,319-20,368-69,437 VII n.l;
footprints of, 247-49; grounds of
self-confidence, four, 383-84,
418-19,457 X n.67; powers of, ten,
383-84,417-18,457 X nn.60-66
Theravada, 9-10
Thoughts (vitakka), 273, 275-78
Trainee (sekha), 305, 306, 356, 373, 381,
390,
406,
415,
455 X
n.35,
455 X n.38
True knowledge (vijja), 47, 66-67,
228,
295,
380, 401
Truth (sacca): 98-101, 433 III
nn.23-26; foundation of
(saccadhitthana), 411; in speech, 174,
245
Unattractiveness of body (asubha),
260, 283, 399, 440 VIII n.19
Underlying tendencies (anusaya),
31-32, 268, 296-98, 340-41, 405, 426
I n.5, 446 IX n.12, 451IX nn.49-50
Unsurpassed things, six (cha anut-
tariya), 50, 428 II n.3
Unwholesome (akusala), 85, 89,140,
146-47,148,165, 213, 275-77, 324
Uposatha, 140,141, 253,174-76, 338,
434 IV n.10
Vedas, 97,132
View, false (ditthi): 35,158,189-90,
213-15, 223-24, 230-33, 356-57, 437
VI n.10, 437 VII n.l. See also Iden-
tity view
View, right (samma ditthi), 132,147,
160,179, 239, 303-4, 323-35,
356-57, 446 IX n.9
Violence, 23, 36-37
Volition (cetana), 146,156, 337, 448 IX
n.26
Volitional formations (sahkhara),
155-56, 333, 337, 339, 344, 362, 447
IX
n.21,
448 IX n.26, 449 IX n.36
Water element (apodhatu), 350-51. See
also Elements (four)
Wealth, 124,125,126-27,128,164,
170-71
Welfare and happiness (hitasukha),
3-4, 83-84, 85, 90,108-9, 111,
124-26,140,142,165, 414-15
Wheel-turning monarch (raja cakka-
vatti), 108,114,115,139-41,166,
395,
433
IV n.l
Wholesome (kusala), 85, 90,140,
146-47,148-49,165, 213, 275-77,
324
Wisdom (panna), 5, 47, 67-68, 76-77,
111, 119,121,125,126,130, 257,
267, 268, 301-3, 321, 322-23, 341,
350, 351, 352, 439 VIII n.5
Woman of home, 128-30
World (loka): empty, as 347; eternal,
infinite, etc., whether, 230-33; grat-
ification, danger, escape, 192-93;
origin and cessation of, 356-57,
358-59, 450-51IX n.47; understood
by Tathagata, 421-22
Worldling (puthujjana), 21-23, 31,
33-34, 216-17, 340, 377, 385, 426-27
I n.10
Worldly conditions, eight (attha lokad-
hamma), 22, 32-33
World-transcending (lokuttara) teach-
ing/path, 147,184-85, 223, 224,
304-5, 434 V n.3, 446 IX n.9
INDEX OF PROPER NAMES
Ajatasattu Vedehiputta, King, 137,
138,
434 IV n.9
Alara Kalama, 56-57, 72
Ananda, Venerable, 36, 51-54,
130-32,137-39, 240-41, 268-69,
290-95, 296-98, 347, 348-49,
396-98, 428 I n.4
Anathapindika, householder, 122,
126-28, 425 I n.l, 433 IV n.4
Araka, religious teacher, 206-7
Aramadanda, brahmin, 35
Assalayana, brahmin student, 132-37
Baranasi, 72-73, 75, 77-78
Bhadraka, headman, 91-93
Brahma, 78,133-36,166,177-78,
418-19, 430 I n.26
Brahma Sahampati, 47-48, 70-72
Canki, brahmin, 96-97
Dalhanemi, King, 139-41
Dasaka, Venerable, 402-4
Devadatta, 233, 438 VI n.3
Dighajanu (Byagghapajja), 124-26
Dighavu, lay follower, 400-1
Ganges, river, 39, 343, 389, 396
Isipatana, 73, 75, 77-78
Jambudipa, 37, 427 I n.18
Jambukhadaka, wanderer, 364
Janusoni, brahmin, 241-50
Jetavana, 425 I n.l
Jotika, householder, 400-1
Kaccanagotta, Venerable, 356-57
Kalamas, 84, 88-91, 431II n.2
Kamboja, 133, 434 IV n.8
Kapathika (Bharadvaja), brahmin
student, 97-103
Kesaputta, 88
Khemaka, Venerable, 402-6, 455 X
nn.34-35
Kondanna, Venerable, 49, 77, 78
Koravya, King, 207-13
Kutadanta, brahmin, 141
Magandiya, wanderer, 188, 202-5,
437 VI
n.5
Mahakaccana, Venerable, 35, 4271
n.12
Mahanama the Sakyan, 279-81,441
VII n.22
MaViavijita, King, 141-42
Malunkyaputta, Venerable, 230-33,
438
VI n.2
Mara, 78,418-19,420
Nakulamata, housewife, 121, 433 IV
n.3
Nakulapita, householder, 121, 433 IV
n.3
Nalakara, 177-78
Nandana Grove, 203, 395
Pasenadi, King, 26-28, 425 I n.l
Pava,219-20
Pilotika (Vacchayana), 241-43
Potaliya, householder, 199-202
Pukkusati, Venerable, 410-12, 449 IX
nn.39-40, 456 X n.44
Rajagaha, 137-38
Ratthapala, Venerable, 207-13
Saccaka (Aggivessana), 59-61, 429 I
n.15
Sakka, ruler of devas, 35-36, 249,166,
167,427In.l3
Sala, brahmin village, 156
Sahgarava, brahmin, 270-72
Sarandada Shrine, 138
Sariputta, Venerable, 296-98, 303,
323-35, 364, 381, 383, 392-93,
408-9, 415-17, 417-19, 445 VII n.62
Savatthi, 193, 214, 241
479
480 In the Buddha's Words
Senanigama, 58
Sigalaka, householder's son, 116-18
Subha, brahmin student, 161-66,
177-78
Sujata, daughter-in-law, 122,124
Suppavasa, Koliyan lady, 170
Tavatimsa devas/heaven, 78, 249,
160,167,172,176, 395
Thullakotthita, 208
Tusita, devas/heaven, 51-52, 78,149,
160,167,172,176
Udayi, Venerable, 348-49
Uddaka Ramaputta, 57-58, 72, 429 II
n.13
Upaka, Ajivaka, 72-73
Uruvela, 58, 72
Uruvelakappa, 91, 92
Vacchagotta, wanderer, 319, 367-69,
386-90, 453 X n.10
Vajjians, 137-38, 434 IV n.9
Vassakara, brahmin, 137-38
Velama, brahmin, 178-79
Vesali, 138
Visakha, Migara's mother, 128-30,
434 IV n.6
Yama, 29-30, 426 I n.4
Yama devas/heaven, 78,149,160,
167,172,176
Yona, 133,434 IV n.8
INDEX OF SIMILES
Ancient city, 69
Bag full of different grains, 283
Ball of bath powder, 251
Balls of clay, 37-38
Banana-tree trunk, 344, 449 IX n.36
Basket made of lotus leaves, 363
Basket made of pine needles, 363
Bit of soil in the fingernail, 394
Bitter seeds yield bitter fruits, 214
Blazing grass torch, 200
Blind men and the elephant, 214-15
Blind men walking in file, 98
Bolt, 407
Bowls of water, 270-72
Burden, 408
Business succeeds, man whose, 250
Changing postures from coarse to
subtle, 276-77
Charcoal pit, 200-1
Cleaning a soiled cloth, 405
Cow cut up into pieces, 284, 321
Cow led to slaughter, 206
Crossbar, 407
Dart, man struck by, 31-32
Desert, man who crosses, 250-51
Dew drop on a blade of grass, 206
Divine messengers, 29-30
Dog on a leash, 39-40
Dream of lovely parks, 201
Elephant's footprints, 242, 244-49
Extinguished fire, 368
Extracting a coarse peg with a fine
peg, 275
Fire-sticks, 60-61, 352
Goods borrowed on loan, 201
Grass and sticks in Jambudipa, 37
Handful of leaves, 360
Heartwood from a tree, 234-37, 396
Herd of deer, 420
Horror at the carcass of a snake, 276
Illness, man who recovers from, 250
Lake whose waters well up from
below, 251
La the-worker making a turn, 282
Leper cured of leprosy, 204-5
Leper scratching his scabs, 205
Line drawn on water, 206
Lion,420-21
Lotuses in a pond, 71, 252
Lump of foam, 343, 448 IX n.33
Lump of spittle, 206
Magical illusion, 344, 449 IX n.37
Mirage, 344, 449 IX n.35
Moon's radiance, 176
Morning star at dawn, 177
Mountain lake, man looking into, 253
Mountain made of stone, 38
Mountain stream, 206
Mountains coming this way, 27-28
Ocean deep and immeasurable,
368-69
Oil-lamp deprived of fuel, 411
Piece of meat seized by a hawk, 200
Piece of meat thrown on a pan, 206
Pillar, 407
Poisoned arrow, man hit by, 231-32
Prison, man released from, 250
Recollects his travels among villages,
a man, 252-53
Refinement of gold, 273
River Ganges reaches the sea, 389-90
Sands of the river Ganges, 39
Scent of a lotus, 404
Sees people moving between two
481
482 In the Buddha's Words
houses, a man, 253
Shutting one's eyes to avoid seeing
forms, 276
Skeleton of meatless bones, 199-200
Slavery, man released from, 250
Stone pillar sunk in the ground,
408-9
Stream of blood, 219-20
Stream of tears, 218-19
Strong man beating down a weaker
man, 277
Sun and moon arising in the world,
419
Sun dispelling darkness of space,
176-77
Swimming across the river Ganges,
396
Tank with four inlets and outlets, 125
Three fires, 346
Tree laden with fruit, 201-2
Trench, 407
Two-handled saw, 278
Water bubble, 206, 343-44, 449 IX
n.34
Way to his village, man who knows
the, 177
Wheel-turning monarch, 115
White cloth, man covered by, 252
Wise gatekeeper, 416
Young deva in Nandana Grove, 203
INDEX OF SELECTED PALI SUTTA TITLES
*: excerpt from a longer sutta
Acchariya-abbhuta Sutta (MN 123), 50-54
Adittapariyaya Sutta (SN 35:28), 346
*Aggivacchagotta Sutta (MN 72), 367-69
*Alagaddupama Sutta (MN 22), 386,407-8
Ananda Sutta (SN 54:13), 290-95
Anattalakkhana Sutta (SN 22:59), 341-42
*Ariyapariyesana Sutta (MN 26), 54-59, 69-75
Assalayana Sutta (MN 93), 132-37
*Cakkavattisahanada Sutta (DN 26), 139^11
*Cahka Sutta (MN 95), 96-103
Culahatthipadopama Sutta (MN 27), 241-50
Culakammavibhahga Sutta (MN 135), 161-66
Culamaluhkya Sutta (MN 63), 230-33
Dhatuvibhanga Sutta (MN 140), 350-53,410-12
Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (SN 56:11), 75-78
*Dvedhavitakka Sutta (MN 19), 420
*Kakacupama Sutta (MN 21), 278-79
*Kitagiri Sutta (MN 70), 390-92
*Kutadanta Sutta (DN 05), 141-42
*Magandiya Sutta (MN 75), 202-5
Maggavibhahga Sutta (SN 45:08), 239-40
*Maha-assapura Sutta (MN 39), 250-53
Mahadukkhakkhandha Sutta (MN 13), 193-99
*Mahamaluhkya Sutta (MN 64), 396-98
*Mahanidana Sutta (DN 15), 36
*Mahaparinibbana Sutta (DN 16), 137-39
Mahapunnama Sutta (MN 109), 338-41
*Mahasaccaka Sutta (MN 36), 59-67
Mahasaropama Sutta (MN 29), 233-37
*Mahasahanada Sutta (MN 12), 417-19
*Mahavacchagotta Sutta (MN 73), 386-90
*Nanatitthiya Sutta (Ud 6:4), 214-15
*Nandakovada Sutta (MN 146), 321
*Nibbana Sutta (Ud 8:1), 365-66, 366
483
484 In the Buddha's Words
Pabbatopama Sutta (SN 3:25), 26-28
Papata Sutta (SN 56:42), 361-62
Phena Sutta (SN 22:95), 343-45
*Potaliya Sutta (MN 54), 199-202
Raja Sutta (SN 55:01), 395
*Ratthapala Sutta (MN 82), 207-13
*Sakkapahha Sutta (DN 21), 35-36
Saleyyaka Sutta (MN 41), 156-61
Salla Sutta (SN 36:06), 31-32
*Samagama Sutta (MN 104), 130-31,131-32
Sammaditthi Sutta (MN 9), 323-35
Satipatthana Sutta (MN 10), 281-90
*Sigalaka (or Sigalovada) Sutta (DN 31), 116-18
Simsapa Sutta (SN 56:31), 360
*Subha Sutta (MN 99), 177-78
Suhna Sutta (SN 35:85), 347
Upaddha Sutta (SN 45:02), 240-41
Vamamsaka Sutta (MN 47), 93-96
Vitakkasanthana Sutta (MN 20), 275-78
INDEX OF PALI TERMS
DISCUSSED IN THE NOTES
atthiia, 450 IX n.46
anantajina, 430 II n.28
anamatagga, 4271 n.17
anusaya, 426 I n.5
antaraparinibbayi, 454-55 X n.33
arahattamagga, 452 X n.l
asamayavimokkha, 438 VII n.5
alaya, 430 II n.24
idappaccayata, 449 IX n.42
ekayano ... maggo, 441 VIII n.25
kappa, 4271 n.l9
tathani avitathani anahnathani, 451IX
n.52
tadarammanam, 441 VIII n.21
devaduta, 426 I n.3
dhammavicayasambojihahga, 445 VIII
n.61
dhammavitakka, 440 VIII n.16
dhammuddhaccaviggahitatn manasam,
439-40 VIII n.ll
natthita, 450 IX n.46
namarupa, 447IX n.19
nippapahcam, 451IX n.56
nibbana, 446 IX n.6
nibbuta, 446 IX n.6
panha, 445 IX n.l
papancasannasahkha, 4271 n.14
paritassana, 426 I n.9
bojjhanga, 445 VIII n.60
bodhipakkhiya dhamma, 456 X n.39
bhavanetti, 451IX n.53
ragaviragattham, 438 VII n.7
vitakkasahkharasanthana, 441 VIII n.20
vipassanapubbangamam samatham, 439
VIII n.9
voharasamuccheda, 437 VI n.3
saddhamattam pemamattam, 452-53 X
n.9
samathapubbahgamam vipassanam, 439
VIII n.7
samathavipassanam yuganaddham, 439
VIII n.10
485
TEACHINGS OF THE BUDDHA
In the
Buddha
An Anthology of Discourses
from the Pali Canon
Edited and introduced hy
Bhikkhu Bodhi
FOREWORD BY THE DALAI LAMA
i
HIS LANDMARK COLLECTION is the definitive introduction to
the Buddha's teachings—in his own words. "The American
scholar'monk Bhikkhu Bodhi, whose voluminous translations have
won widespread acclaim, here presents selected discourses of the
Buddha from the Pali Canon, the earliest record of what the Buddha
taught. Divided into ten thematic chapters, In the Buddha's Words
reveals the full scope of the Buddha's discourses, from family life and
marriage to renunciation and the path of insight.
In the Buddha's Words allows even readers unacquainted with
Buddhism to grasp the significance of the Buddha's contributions to
our world heritage. Taken as a whole, these texts bear eloquent tes-
timony to the breadth and intelligence of the Buddha's teachings, and
point the way to an ancient yet ever-vital path.
"There are two ways of looking at any work of Buddhist literature.
One is to view it from the outside, as an object situated in its histori-
cal and cultural milieu. The other, more inward, perspective is to
regard its potential transformative effect upon its readers. From either
one of these perspectives, this new work is remarkable.. .Bhikkhu
Bodhi's introductions to each chapter strung together would them-
selves serve as a beautiful and accessible overview of the Dhamma."
Buddhadharma: The Practitioner's Quarterly
WISDOM PUBLICATIONS BOSTON
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