Tamed, he is supreme among those who tame;

At peace, he is the sage among those who bring peace;

Freed, he is the chief of those who set free;

Delivered, he is the best of those who deliver.

—Anguttara Nikaya 4:23

In the

Buddha's

Words

An Anthology of Discourses

from the Pali Canon

Edited and introduced by

Bhikkhu Bodhi

WISDOM PUBLICATIONS • BOSTON

Wisdom Publications, Inc.

199 Elm Street

Somerville MA 02144 USA

www.wisdompubs .org

retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any means without the prior permis-

sion of the copyright owner. Enquiries should be made to the publisher.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Tipitaka. Suttapitaka. English. Selections.

In the Buddha's words : an anthology of discourses from the Pali canon /

edited and introduced

by Bhikkhu Bodhi. — 1st ed.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and indexes.

ISBN 0-86171-491-1 (pbk.: alk. paper)

I. Bodhi, Bhikkhu. II. Title.

BQ1192.E53B63 2005

294.3'823~dc22 2005018336

ISBN 0-86171-491-1

Second Printing

09 08 07

5 4 3

The publisher thanks AltaMira Press for kindly granting permission to include in this

anthology selections from Numerical Discourses of the Buddha: An Anthology ofSuttas

from the Anguttara Nikaya, translated and edited by Nyanaponika Thera and Bhikkhu

Bodhi.

Cover and interior design by Gopa&Ted2, Inc. Set in DPalatino 10/13.75 pt.

Frontispiece: Standing Buddha Shakyamuni. Pakistan, Gandhara, second century A.D.

Height 250cm. Courtesy of the Miho Museum, Japan, www.miho.jp

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CONTENTS

Foreword

[[

Preface }

List of Abbreviations

Key to the Pronunciation of Pali xv

Detailed List of Contents

vii

General Introduction \

I. The Human Condition YJ

II. The Bringer of Light 41

III. Approaching the Dhamma 79

IV. The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 105

V The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 143

VI. Deepening One's Perspective on the World 181

VII. The Path to Liberation 221

VIII. Mastering the Mind 255

IX. Shining the Light of Wisdom 299

X. The Planes of Realization 371

Notes 425

Table of Sources 459

Glossary 459

Bibliography 471

Index of Subjects 473

Index of Proper Names 479

Index of Similes 48 \

Index of Selected Pali Sutta Titles 483

Index of Pali Terms Discussed in the Notes 485

FOREWORD

More than two thousand five hundred years have

kind teacher, Buddha Sakyamuni, taught in India. Hi

all who wished to heed it, inviting them to listen, ref

examine what he had to say. He addressed differen

groups of people over a period of more than forty y

After the Buddha's passing, a record of what he sai

as an oral tradition. Those who heard the teachings v\

meet with others for communal recitations of what tr

memorized. In due course, these recitations from m

ten down, laying the basis for all subsequent Buddl

Pali Canon is one of the earliest of these written rec

complete early version that has survived intact. With

the texts known as the Nikayas have the special val

gle cohesive collection of the Buddha's teachings i:

These teachings cover a wide range of topics; they c

renunciation and liberation, but also with the orooer

viii In the Buddha's Words

transport and communication that I most appreciate is the vastly

expanded opportunities those interested in Buddhism now have to

acquaint themselves with the full range of Buddhist teaching and prac-

tice. What I find especially encouraging about this book is that it shows

so clearly how much fundamentally all schools of Buddhism have in

common. I congratulate Bhikkhu Bodhi for this careful work of com-

pilation and translation. I offer my prayers that readers may find

advice here—and the inspiration to put it into practice—that will

enable them to develop inner peace, which I believe is essential for the

creation of a happier and more peaceful world.

Venerable Tenzin Gyatso, the Fourteenth Dalai Lama

May 10,2005

PREFACE

The Buddha's discourses preserved in the Pali Canon are called suttas,

the Pali equivalent of the Sanskrit word sutras. Although the Pali

Canon belongs to a particular Buddhist school—the Theravada, or

School of the Elders—the suttas are by no means exclusively

Theravada Buddhist texts. They stem from the earliest period of

Buddhist literary history, a period lasting roughly a hundred years

after the Buddha's death, before the original Buddhist community

divided into different schools. The Pali suttas have counterparts from

other early Buddhist schools now extinct, texts sometimes strikingly

similar to the Pali version, differing mainly in settings and arrange-

ments but not in points of doctrine. The suttas, along with their coun-

terparts, thus constitute the most ancient records of the Buddha's

teachings available to us; they are the closest we can come to what the

historical Buddha Gotama himself actually taught. The teachings

found in them have served as the fountainhead, the primal source, for

all the evolving streams of Buddhist doctrine and practice through the

centuries. For this reason, they constitute the common heritage of the

entire Buddhist tradition, and Buddhists of all schools who wish to

understand the taproot of Buddhism should make a close and careful

study of them a priority.

In the Pali Canon the Buddha's discourses are preserved in collec-

tions called Nikayas. Over the past twenty years, fresh translations of

the four major Nikayas have appeared in print, issued in attractive

and affordable editions. Wisdom Publications pioneered this devel-

opment in 1987 when it published Maurice Walshe's translation of the

Digha Nikaya, The Long Discourses of the Buddha. Wisdom followed

this precedent by bringing out, in 1995, my revised and edited ver-

sion of Bhikkhu Nanamoli's handwritten translation of the Majjhima

Nikaya, The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, followed in 2000 by

my new translation of the complete Samyutta Nikaya, The Connected

Discourses of the Buddha. In 1999, under the imprint of The Sacred Lit-

erature Trust Series, AltaMira Press published an anthology of suttas

x In the Buddha's Words

from the Ahguttara Nikaya, translated by the late Nyanaponika Thera

and myself, titled Numerical Discourses of the Buddha. I am currently

working on a new translation of the entire Ahguttara Nikaya, intended

for Wisdom Publication's Teachings of the Buddha series.

Many who have read these larger works have told me, to my satis-

faction, that the translations brought the suttas to life for them. Yet

others who earnestly sought to enter the deep ocean of the Nikayas

told me something else. They said that while the language of the trans-

lations made them far more accessible than earlier translations, they

were still grappling for a standpoint from which to see the suttas'

overall structure, a framework within which they all fit together. The

Nikayas themselves do not offer much help in this respect, for their

arrangement—with the notable exception of the Samyutta Nikaya,

which does have a thematic structure—appears almost haphazard.

In an ongoing series of lectures I began giving at Bodhi Monastery

in New Jersey in January 2003,1 devised a scheme of my own to organ-

ize the contents of the Majjhima Nikaya. This scheme unfolds the

Buddha's message progressively, from the simple to the difficult, from

the elementary to the profound. Upon reflection, I saw that this scheme

could be applied not only to the Majjhima Nikaya, but to the four

Nikayas as a whole. The present book organizes suttas selected from all

four Nikayas within this thematic and progressive framework.

This book is intended for two types of readers. The first are those

not yet acquainted with the Buddha's discourses who feel the need for

a systematic introduction. For such readers, any of the Nikayas is

bound to appear opaque. All four of them, viewed at once, may seem

like a jungle—entangling and bewildering, full of unknown beasts—or

like the great ocean—vast, tumultuous, and forbidding. I hope that

this book will serve as a map to help them wend their way through the

jungle of the suttas or as a sturdy ship to carry them across the ocean

of the Dhamma.

The second type of readers for whom this book is meant are those,

already acquainted with the suttas, who still cannot see how they fit

together into an intelligible whole. For such readers, individual sut-

tas may be comprehensible in themselves, but the texts in their total-

ity appear like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle scattered across a table. Once

one understands the scheme in this book, one should come away with

a clear idea of the architecture of the teaching. Then, with a little

Preface xi

reflection, one should be able to determine the place any sutta occu-

pies in the edifice of the Dhamma, whether or not it has been included

in this anthology.

This anthology, or any other anthology of suttas, is no substitute

for the Nikayas themselves. My hope is twofold, corresponding to the

two types of readers for whom this volume is designed: (1) that new-

comers to Early Buddhist literature find this volume whets their

appetite for more and encourages them to take the plunge into the

full Nikayas; and (2) that experienced readers of the Nikayas finish the

book with a better understanding of material with which they are

already familiar.

If this anthology is meant to make any other point, it is to convey the

sheer breadth and range of the Buddha's wisdom. While Early

Buddhism is sometimes depicted as a discipline of world renunciation

intended primarily for ascetics and contemplatives, the ancient dis-

courses of the Pali Canon clearly show us how the Buddha's wisdom

and compassion reached into the very depths of mundane life, provid-

ing ordinary people with guidelines for proper conduct and right

understanding. Far from being a creed for a monastic elite, ancient

Buddhism involved the close collaboration of householders and

monastics in the twin tasks of maintaining the Buddha's teachings and

assisting one another in their efforts to walk the path to the extinction

of suffering. To fulfill these tasks meaningfully, the Dhamma had to

provide them with deep and inexhaustible guidance, inspiration, joy,

and consolation. It could never have done this if it had not directly

addressed their earnest efforts to combine social and family obliga-

tions with an aspiration to realize the highest.

Almost all the passages included in this book have been selected from

the above-mentioned publications of the four Nikayas. Almost all have

undergone revisions, usually slight but sometimes major, to accord with

my own evolving understanding of the texts and the Pali language. I

have newly translated a small number of suttas from the Ahguttara

Nikaya not included in the above-mentioned anthology. I have also

included a handful of suttas from the Udana and Itivuttaka, two small

books belonging to the fifth Nikaya, the Khuddaka Nikaya, the Minor

or Miscellaneous Collection. I have based these on John D. Ireland's

translation, published by the Buddhist Publication Society in Sri Lanka,

but again I have freely modified them to fit my own preferred diction

xii In the Buddha's Words

and terminology. I have given preference to suttas in prose over those

in verse, as being more direct and explicit. When a sutta concludes

with verses, if these merely restate the preceding prose, in the interest

of space I have omitted them.

Each chapter begins with an introduction in which I explain the

salient concepts relevant to the theme of the chapter and try to show

how the texts I have chosen exemplify that theme. To clarify points

arising from both the introductions and the texts, I have included end-

notes. These often draw upon the classical commentaries to the

Nikayas ascribed to the great South Indian commentator Acariya

Buddhaghosa, who worked in Sri Lanka in the fifth century C.E. For the

sake of concision, I have not included as many notes in this book as I

have in my other translations of the Nikayas. These notes are also not

as technical as those in the full translations.

References to the sources follow each selection. References to texts

from the Digha Nikaya and Majjhima Nikaya cite the number and

name of the sutta (in Pali); passages from these two collections retain

the paragraph numbers used in The Long Discourses of the Buddha and

The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, so readers who wish to

locate these passages within the full translations can easily do so. Ref-

erences to texts from the Samyutta Nikaya cite samyutta and sutta num-

ber; texts from the Ahguttara Nikaya cite nipata and sutta number (the

Ones and the Twos also cite chapters within the nipata followed by the

sutta number). References to texts from the Udana cite nipata and sutta

number; texts from the Itivuttaka cite simply the sutta number. All ref-

erences are followed by the volume and page number in the Pali Text

Society's standard edition of these works.

I am grateful to Timothy McNeill and David Kittelstrom of Wisdom

Publications for urging me to persist with this project in the face of long

periods of indifferent health. Samanera Analayo and Bhikkhu Nyana-

sobhano read and commented on my introductions, and John Kelly

reviewed proofs of the entire book. All three made useful suggestions,

for which I am grateful. John Kelly also prepared the table of sources

that appears at the back of the book. Finally, I am grateful to my stu-

dents of Pali and Dhamma studies at Bodhi Monastery for their enthu-

siastic interest in the teachings of the Nikayas, which inspired me to

compile this anthology. I am especially thankful to the monastery's

extraordinary founder, Ven. Master Jen-Chun, for welcoming a monk of

Preface xiii

another Buddhist tradition to his monastery and for his interest in

bridging the Northern and Southern transmissions of the Early

Buddhist teachings.

Bhikkhu Bodhi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AN Ahguttara Nikaya

Be Burmese-script Chattha Sahgayana ed.

Ce Sinhala-script ed.

DN Digha Nikaya

Ee Roman-script ed. (PTS)

It Itivuttaka

MN Majjhima Nikaya

Mp Manorathapurani (Ahguttara Nikaya Commentary)

Ppn Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga translation)

Ps Papancasudani (Majjhima Nikaya Commentary)

Ps-pt Papancasudani-purana-tika (Majjhima Nikaya

Subcommentary)

Skt Sanskrit

SN Samyutta Nikaya

Spk Saratthappakasini (Samyutta Nikaya Commentary)

Spk-pt Saratthappakasini-purana-tika (Samyutta Nikaya

Subcommentary)

Sv Sumahgalavilasini (Digha Nikaya Commentary)

Ud Udana

Vibh Vibhahga

Vin Vinaya

Vism Visuddhimagga

All page references to Pali texts are to the page numbers of the Pali

Text Society's editions.

xiv

KEY TO THE PRONUNCIATION OF PALI

The Pali Alphabet

Vowels: a, a, i, i, u, u, e, o

Consonants:

Gutterals k, kh, g, gh, h

Palatals c, ch, j, jh, n

Cerebrals t, th, d, dh, n

Dentals t, th, d, dh, n

Labials p, ph, b, bh, m

Other y, r, 1,1, v, s, h, m

Pronunciation

a as in "cut" u as in "put"

a as in "father" u as in "rule"

i as in "king" e as in "way"

i as in "keen" o as in "home"

Of the vowels, e and o are long before a single consonant and short

before a double consonant. Among the consonants, g is always pro-

nounced as in "good," c as in "church," n as in "onion." The cerebrals

(or retroflexes) are spoken with the tongue on the roof of the mouth;

the dentals with the tongue on the upper teeth. The aspirates—kh, gh,

ch, jh, th, dh, th, dh, ph, bh—are single consonants pronounced with

slightly more force than the nonaspirates, e.g., th as in "Thomas" (not

as in "thin"); ph as in "putter" (not as in "phone"). Double consonants

are always enunciated separately, e.g., dd as in "mad dog," gg as in

"big gun." The pure nasal (niggahita) m is pronounced like the ng in

"song." An o and an e always carry a stress; otherwise the stress falls

on a long vowel—a, i, u,—or on a double consonant, or on m.

DETAILED LIST OF CONTENTS

I. THE HUMAN CONDITION

Introduction

1. Old Age, Illness, and Death

(1) Aging and Death (SN 3:3)

(2) The Simile of the Mountain (SN 3:25)

(3) The Divine Messengers (from AN 3:35)

2. The Tribulations of Unreflective Living

(1) The Dart of Painful Feeling (SN 36:6)

(2) The Vicissitudes of Life (AN 8:6)

(3) Anxiety Due to Change (SN 22:7)

3. A World in Turmoil

(1) The Origin of Conflict (AN 2: iv, 6, abridged)

(2) Why Do Beings Live in Hate? (from DN 21)

(3) The Dark Chain of Causation (from DN 15)

(4) The Roots of Violence and Oppression (from

4. Without Discoverable Beginning

(1) Grass and Sticks (SN 15:1)

(2) Balls of Clay (SN 15:2)

(3) The Mountain (SN 15:5)

(4) The River Ganges (SN 15:8)

(5) Dog on a Leash (SN 22:99)

II. THE BRINGER OF LIGHT

Introduction

1. One Person (AN Lxiii, 1, 5, 6)

xvii

xviii In the Buddha's Words

2. The Buddha's Conception and Birth (MN 123, abridged) 50

3. The Quest for Enlightenment

(1) Seeking the Supreme State of Sublime Peace

(from MN 26) 54

(2) The Realization of the Three True Knowledges

(from MN 36) 59

(3) The Ancient City (SN 12:65) 67

4. The Decision to Teach (from MN 26) 69

5. The First Discourse (SN 56:11) 75

III. APPROACHING THE DHAMMA

Introduction 81

1. Not a Secret Doctrine (AN 3:129) 88

2. No Dogmas or Blind Belief (AN 3:65) 88

3. The Visible Origin and Passing Away of Suffering (SN 42:11) 91

4. Investigate the Teacher Himself (MN 47) 93

5. Steps toward the Realization of Truth (from MN 95) 96

IV THE HAPPINESS VISIBLE IN THIS PRESENT LIFE

Introduction 107

1. Upholding the Dhamma in Society

(1) The King of the Dhamma (AN 3:14) 115

(2) Worshipping the Six Directions (from DN 31) 116

2. The Family

(1) Parents and Children

(a) Respect for Parents (AN 4:63) 118

(b) Repaying One's Parents (AN 2: iv, 2) 119

(2) Husbands and Wives

(a) Different Kinds of Marriages (AN 4:53) 119

(b) How to Be United in Future Lives (AN 4:55) 121

Detailed List of Contents xix

3. Present Welfare, Future Welfare (AN 8:54) 124

4. Right Livelihood

(1) Avoiding Wrong Livelihood (AN 5:177) 126

(2) The Proper Use of Wealth (AN 4:61) 126

(3) A Family Man's Happiness (AN 4:62) 127

5. The Woman of the Home (AN 8:49) 128

6. The Community

(1) Six Roots of Dispute (from MN 104) 130

(2) Six Principles of Cordiality (from MN 104) 131

(3) Purification Is for All Four Castes (MN 93, abridged) 132

(4) Seven Principles of Social Stability (from DN 16) 137

(5) The Wheel-Turning Monarch (from DN 26) 139

(6) Bringing Tranquillity to the Land (from DN 5) 141

V. THE WAY TO A FORTUNATE REBIRTH

Introduction 145

1. The Law of Kamma

(1) Four Kinds of Kamma (AN 4:232) 155

(2) Why Beings Fare as They Do after Death (MN 41) 156

(3) Kamma and Its Fruits (MN 135) 161

2. Merit: The Key to Good Fortune

(1) Meritorious Deeds (It 22) 166

(2) Three Bases of Merit (AN 8:36) 167

(3) The Best Kinds of Confidence (AN 4:34) 168

3. Giving

(1) If People Knew the Result of Giving (It 26) 169

(2) Reasons for Giving (AN 8:33) 169

(3) The Gift of Food (AN 4:57) 170

(4) A Superior Person's Gifts (AN 5:148) 170

(5) Mutual Support (It 107) 171

xx In the Buddha's Words

(6) Rebirth on Account of Giving (AN 8:35) 171

4. Moral Discipline

(1) The Five Precepts (AN 8:39) 172

(2) The Uposatha Observance (AN 8:41) 174

5. Meditation

(1) The Development of Loving-Kindness (It 27) 176

(2) The Four Divine Abodes (from MN 99) 177

(3) Insight Surpasses All (AN 9:20, abridged) 178

VI. DEEPENING ONE'S PERSPECTIVE ON THE WORLD

Introduction 183

1. Four Wonderful Things (AN 4:128) 191

2. Gratification, Danger, and Escape

(1) Before My Enlightenment (AN 3:101 §§1-2) 192

(2) I Set Out Seeking (AN 3:101 §3) 192

(3) If There Were No Gratification (AN 3:102) 193

3. Properly Appraising Objects of Attachment (MN 13) 193

4. The Pitfalls in Sensual Pleasures

(1) Cutting Off All Affairs (from MN 54) 199

(2) The Fever of Sensual Pleasures (from MN 75) 202

5. Life Is Short and Fleeting (AN 7:70) 206

6. Four Summaries of the Dhamma (from MN 82) 207

7. The Danger in Views

(1) A Miscellany on Wrong View (AN 1: xvii, 1, 3, 7, 9) 213

(2) The Blind Men and the Elephant (Ud 6:4) 214

(3) Held by Two Kinds of Views (It 49) 215

8. From the Divine Realms to the Infernal (AN 4:125) 216

9. The Perils of Samsara

(1) The Stream of Tears (SN 15:3) 218

(2) The Stream of Blood (SN 15:13) 219

Detailed List of Contents xxi

VII. THE PATH TO LIBERATION

Introduction 223

1. Why Does One Enter the Path?

(1) The Arrow of Birth, Aging, and Death (MN 63) 230

(2) The Heartwood of the Spiritual Life (MN 29) 233

(3) The Fading Away of Lust (SN 45:41-48, combined) 238

2. Analysis of the Eightfold Path (SN 45:8) 239

3. Good Friendship (SN 45:2) 240

4. The Graduated Training (MN 27) 241

5. The Higher Stages of Training with Similes (from MN 39) 250

VIII. MASTERING THE MIND

Introduction 257

1. The Mind Is the Key (AN 1: iii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 9,10) 267

2. Developing a Pair of Skills

(1) Serenity and Insight (AN 2: iii, 10) 267

(2) Four Ways to Arahantship (AN 4:170) 268

(3) Four Kinds of Persons (AN 4:94) 269

3. The Hindrances to Mental Development (SN 46:55, abridged) 270

4. The Refinement of the Mind (AN 3:100 §§1-10) 273

5. The Removal of Distracting Thoughts (MN 20) 275

6. The Mind of Loving-Kindness (from MN 21) 278

7. The Six Recollections (AN 6:10) 279

8. The Four Establishments of Mindfulness (MN 10) 281

9. Mindfulness of Breathing (SN 54:13) 290

10. The Achievement of Mastery (SN 28:1-9, combined) 296

IX. SHINING THE LIGHT OF WISDOM

Introduction 301

1. Images of Wisdom

xxii In the Buddha's Words

(1) Wisdom as a Light (AN 4:143) 321

(2) Wisdom as a Knife (from MN 146) 321

2. The Conditions for Wisdom (AN 8:2, abridged) 322

3. A Discourse on Right View (MN 9) 323

4. The Domain of Wisdom

(1) By Way of the Five Aggregates

(a) Phases of the Aggregates (SN 22:56) 335

(b) A Catechism on the Aggregates (SN 22:82 =

MN 109, abridged) 338

(d) Impermanent, Suffering, Nonself (SN 22:45) 342

(e) A Lump of Foam (SN 22:95) 343

(2) By Way of the Six Sense Bases

(a) Full Understanding (SN 35:26) 345

(b) Burning (SN 35:28) 346

combined) 346

(d) Empty Is the World (SN 35:85) 347

(e) Consciousness Too Is Nonself (SN 35:234) 348

(3) By Way of the Elements

(a) The Eighteen Elements (SN 14:1) 349

(b) The Four Elements (SN 14:37-39, combined) 349

(4) By Way of Dependent Origination

(a) What Is Dependent Origination? (SN 12:1) 353

(b) The Stableness of the Dhamma (SN 12:20) 353

(d) A Teaching by the Middle (SN 12:15) 356

(e) The Continuance of Consciousness (SN 12:38) 357

(f) The Origin and Passing of the World (SN 12:44) 358

Detailed List of Contents

xxm

(5) By Way of the Four Noble Truths

(a) The Truths of All Buddhas (SN 56:24) 359

(b) These Four Truths Are Actual (SN 56:20) 359

(d) Because of Not Understanding (SN 56:21) 361

(e) The Precipice (SN 56:42) 361

(f) Making the Breakthrough (SN 56:32) 362

(g) The Destruction of the Taints (SN 56:25) 363

5. The Goal of Wisdom

(1) What is Nibbana? (SN 38:1) 364

(2) Thirty-Three Synonyms for Nibbana (SN 43:1-44,

combined) 364

(3) There Is That Base (Ud 8:1) 365

(4) The Unborn (Ud 8:3) 366

(5) The Two Nibbana Elements.(It 44) 366

(6) The Fire and the Ocean (from MN 72) 367

X. THE PLANES OF REALIZATION

Introduction 373

1. The Field of Merit for the World

(1) Eight Persons Worthy of Gifts (AN 8:59) 385

(2) Differentiation by Faculties (SN 48:18) 385

(3) In the Dhamma Well Expounded (from MN 22) 386

(4) The Completeness of the Teaching (from MN 73) 386

(5) Seven Kinds of Noble Persons (from MN 70) 390

2. Stream-Entry

(1) The Four Factors Leading to Stream-Entry (SN 55:5) 392

(2) Entering the Fixed Course of Rightness (SN 25:1) 393

(3) The Breakthrough to the Dhamma (SN 13:1) 394

(4) The Four Factors of a Stream-Enterer (SN 55:2) 394

xxiv In the Buddha's Words

(5) Better than Sovereignty over the Earth (SN 55:1) 395

3. Nonreturning

(1) Abandoning the Five Lower Fetters (from MN 64) 396

(2) Four Kinds of Persons (AN 4:169) 398

(3) Six Things that Partake of True Knowledge (SN 55:3) 400

(4) Five Kinds of Nonreturners (SN 46:3) 401

4. TheArahant

(1) Removing the Residual Conceit "I Am" (SN 22:89) 402

(2) The Trainee and the Arahant (SN 48:53) 406

(3) A Monk Whose Crossbar Has Been Lifted (from MN 22) 407

(4) Nine Things an Arahant Cannot Do (from AN 9:7) 408

(5) A Mind Unshaken (from AN 9:26) 408

(6) The Ten Powers of an Arahant Monk (AN 10:90) 409

(7) The Sage at Peace (from MN 140) 410

(8) Happy Indeed Are the Arahants (from SN 22:76) 412

5. TheTathagata

(1) The Buddha and the Arahant (SN 22:58) 413

(2) For the Welfare of Many (It 84) 414

(3) Sariputta's Lofty Utterance (SN 47:12) 415

(4) The Powers and Grounds of Self-Confidence

(from MN 12)

417

(5) The Manifestation of Great Light (SN 56:38) 419

(6) The Man Desiring Our Good (from MN 19) 420

(7) The Lion (SN 22:78) 420

(8) Why Is He Called the Tathagata? (AN 4:23 = It 112) 421

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

UNCOVERING THE STRUCTURE OF THE TEACHING

Though his teaching is highly systematic, there is no single text that can

be ascribed to the Buddha in which he defines the architecture of the

Dhamma, the scaffolding upon which he has framed his specific

expressions of the doctrine. In the course of his long ministry, the

Buddha taught in different ways as determined by occasion and cir-

cumstances. Sometimes he would enunciate invariable principles that

stand at the heart of the teaching. Sometimes he would adapt the teach-

ing to accord with the proclivities and aptitudes of the people who

came to him for guidance. Sometimes he would adjust his exposition

to fit a situation that required a particular response. But throughout

the collections of texts that have come down to us as authorized "Word

of the Buddha," we do not find a single sutta, a single discourse, in

which the Buddha has drawn together all the elements of his teaching

and assigned them to their appropriate place within some comprehen-

sive system.

While in a literate culture in which systematic thought is highly

prized the lack of such a text with a unifying function might be viewed

as a defect, in an entirely oral culture—as was the culture in which the

Buddha lived and moved—the lack of a descriptive key to the

Dhamma would hardly be considered significant. Within this culture

neither teacher nor student aimed at conceptual completeness. The

teacher did not intend to present a complete system of ideas; his pupils

did not aspire to learn a complete system of ideas. The aim that united

them in the process of learning—the process of transmission—was that

of practical training, self-transformation, the realization of truth, and

unshakable liberation of the mind. This does not mean, however, that

the teaching was always expediently adapted to the situation at hand.

At times the Buddha would present more panoramic views of the

Dhamma that united many components of the path in a graded or

wide-ranging structure. But though there are several discourses that

2 In the Buddha's Words

exhibit a broad scope, they still do not embrace all elements of the

Dhamma in one overarching scheme.

The purpose of the present book is to develop and exemplify such a

scheme. I here attempt to provide a comprehensive picture of the

Buddha's teaching that incorporates a wide variety of suttas into an

organic structure. This structure, I hope, will bring to light the inten-

tional pattern underlying the Buddha's formulation of the Dhamma

and thus provide the reader with guidelines for understanding Early

Buddhism as a whole. I have selected the suttas almost entirely from

the four major collections or Nikayas of the Pali Canon, though I have

also included a few texts from the Udana and Itivuttaka, two small

books of the fifth collection, the Khuddaka Nikaya. Each chapter opens

with its own introduction, in which I explain the basic concepts of

Early Buddhism that the texts exemplify and show how the texts give

expression to these ideas.

I will briefly supply background information about the Nikayas later

in this introduction. First, however, I want to outline the scheme that I

have devised to organize the suttas. Although my particular use of this

scheme may be original, it is not sheer innovation but is based upon a

threefold distinction that the Pali commentaries make among the types

of benefits to which the practice of the Dhamma leads: (1) welfare and

happiness visible in this present life; (2) welfare and happiness per-

taining to future lives; and (3) the ultimate good, Nibbana (Skt: nirvana).

Three preliminary chapters are designed to lead up to those that

embody this threefold scheme. Chapter I is a survey of the human con-

dition as it is apart from the appearance of a Buddha in the world. Per-

haps this was the way human life appeared to the Bodhisatta—the

future Buddha—as he dwelled in the Tusita heaven gazing down upon

the earth, awaiting the appropriate occasion to descend and take his

final birth. We behold a world in which human beings are driven help-

lessly toward old age and death; in which they are spun around by cir-

cumstances so that they are oppressed by bodily pain, cast down by

failure and misfortune, made anxious and fearful by change and dete-

rioration. It is a world in which people aspire to live in harmony, but

in which their untamed emotions repeatedly compel them, against

their better judgment, to lock horns in conflicts that escalate into vio-

lence and wholesale devastation. Finally, taking the broadest view of

all, it is a world in which sentient beings are propelled forward, by

General Introduction 3

their own ignorance and craving, from one life to the next, wandering

blindly through the cycle of rebirths called samsdra.

Chapter II gives an account of the Buddha's descent into this world.

He comes as the "one person" who appears out of compassion for the

world, whose arising in the world is "the manifestation of great light."

We follow the story of his conception and birth, of his renunciation

and quest for enlightenment, of his realization of the Dhamma, and of

his decision to teach. The chapter ends with his first discourse to the

five monks, his first disciples, in the Deer Park near Baranasi.

Chapter III is intended to sketch the special features of the Buddha's

teaching, and by implication, the attitude with which a prospective

student should approach the teaching. The texts tell us that the Dhamma

is not a secret or esoteric teaching but one which "shines when taught

openly." It does not demand blind faith in authoritarian scriptures, in

divine revelations, or infallible dogmas, but invites investigation and

appeals to personal experience as the ultimate criterion for determin-

ing its validity. The teaching is concerned with the arising and cessa-

tion of suffering, which can be observed in one's own experience. It

does not set up even the Buddha as an unimpeachable authority but

invites us to examine him to determine whether he fully deserves our

trust and confidence. Finally, it offers a step-by-step procedure

whereby we can put the teaching to the test, and by doing so realize the

ultimate truth for ourselves.

With chapter IV, we come to texts dealing with the first of the three

types of benefit the Buddha's teaching is intended to bring. This is

called "the welfare and happiness visible in this present life" (dittha-

dhamma-hitasukha), the happiness that comes from following ethical

norms in one's family relationships, livelihood, and communal activi-

ties. Although Early Buddhism is often depicted as a radical discipline

of renunciation directed to a transcendental goal, the Nikayas reveal

the Buddha to have been a compassionate and pragmatic teacher who

was intent on promoting a social order in which people can live

together peacefully and harmoniously in accordance with ethical

guidelines. This aspect of Early Buddhism is evident in the Buddha's

teachings on the duties of children to their parents, on the mutual obli-

gations of husbands and wives, on right livelihood, on the duties of the

ruler toward his subjects, and on the principles of communal harmony

and respect.

4 In the Buddha's Words

The second type of benefit to which the Buddha's teaching leads is

the subject of chapter V, called the welfare and happiness pertaining to

the future life (samparayika-hitasukha). This is the happiness achieved by

obtaining a fortunate rebirth and success in future lives through one's

accumulation of merit. The term "merit" (punna) refers to wholesome

kamma (Skt: karma) considered in terms of its capacity to produce

favorable results within the round of rebirths. I begin this chapter with

a selection of texts on the teaching of kamma and rebirth. This leads us

to general texts on the idea of merit, followed by selections on the three

principal "bases of merit" recognized in the Buddha's discourses: giv-

ing (dana), moral discipline (sila), and meditation (bhavana). Since med-

itation figures prominently in the third type of benefit, the kind of

meditation emphasized here, as a basis for merit, is that productive of

the most abundant mundane fruits, the four "divine abodes" (brahma-

vihara), particularly the development of loving-kindness.

Chapter VI is transitional, intended to prepare the way for the chap-

ters to follow. While demonstrating that the practice of his teaching

does indeed conduce to happiness and good fortune within the bounds

of mundane life, in order to lead people beyond these bounds, the

Buddha exposes the danger and inadequacy in all conditioned exis-

tence. He shows the defects in sensual pleasures, the shortcomings of

material success, the inevitability of death, and the impermanence of

all conditioned realms of being. To arouse in his disciples an aspiration

for the ultimate good, Nibbana, the Buddha again and again under-

scores the perils of samsara. Thus this chapter comes to a climax with

two dramatic texts that dwell on the misery of bondage to the round

of repeated birth and death.

The following four chapters are devoted to the third benefit that the

Buddha's teaching is intended to bring: the ultimate good (paramattha),

the attainment of Nibbana. The first of these, chapter VII, gives a gen-

eral overview of the path to liberation, which is treated analytically

through definitions of the factors of the Noble Eightfold Path and

dynamically through an account of the training of the monk. A long

sutta on the graduated path surveys the monastic training from the

monk's initial entry upon the life of renunciation to his attainment of

arahantship, the final goal.

Chapter VIII focuses upon the taming of the mind, the major empha-

sis in the monastic training. I here present texts that discuss the obstacles

General Introduction 5

to mental development, the means of overcoming these obstacles, dif-

ferent methods of meditation, and the states to be attained when the

obstacles are overcome and the disciple gains mastery over the mind.

In this chapter I introduce the distinction between samatha and vipas-

sana, serenity and insight, the one leading to samadhi or concentration,

the other to panna or wisdom. However, I include texts that treat

insight only in terms of the methods used to generate it, not in terms

of its actual contents.

Chapter IX, titled "Shining the Light of Wisdom," deals with the

content of insight. For Early Buddhism, and indeed for almost all

schools of Buddhism, insight or wisdom is the principal instrument of

liberation. Thus in this chapter I focus on the Buddha's teachings about

such topics pivotal to the development of wisdom as right view, the

five aggregates, the six sense bases, the eighteen elements, dependent

origination, and the Four Noble Truths. This chapter ends with a selec-

tion of texts on Nibbana, the ultimate goal of wisdom.

The final goal is not achieved abruptly but by passing through a

series of stages that transforms an individual from a worldling into an

arahant, a liberated one. Thus chapter X, "The Planes of Realization,"

offers a selection of texts on the main stages along the way. I first pres-

ent the series of stages as a progressive sequence; then I return to the

starting point and examine three major milestones within this progres-

sion: stream-entry, the stage of nonreturner, and arahantship. I con-

clude with a selection of suttas on the Buddha, the foremost among

the arahants, here spoken of under the epithet he used most often

when referring to himself, the Tathagata.

THE ORIGINS OF THE NIKAYAS

The texts I have drawn upon to fill out my scheme are, as I said above,

all selected from the Nikayas, the main sutta collections of the Pali

Canon. Some words are needed to explain the origin and nature of

these sources.

The Buddha did not write down any of his teachings, nor were his

teachings recorded in writing by his disciples. Indian culture at the

time the Buddha lived was still predominantly preliterate.

The

uctdha wandered from town to town in the Ganges plain, instructing

is monks and nuns, giving sermons to the householders who flocked

6 In the Buddha's Words

to hear him speak, answering the questions of curious inquirers, and

engaging in discussions with people from all classes of society. The

records of his teachings that we have do not come from his own pen or

from transcriptions made by those who heard the teaching from him,

but from monastic councils held after his parinibbdna—his passing

away into Nibbana—for the purpose of preserving his teaching.

It is unlikely that the teachings that derive from these councils repro-

duce the Buddha's words verbatim. The Buddha must have spoken

spontaneously and elaborated upon his themes in countless ways in

response to the varied needs of those who sought his guidance. Pre-

serving by oral transmission such a vast and diverse range of material

would have bordered on the impossible. To mold the teachings into a

format suitable for preservation, the monks responsible for the texts

would have had to collate and edit them to make them better fit for lis-

tening, retention, recitation, memorization, and repetition—the five

major elements in oral transmission. This process, which may have

already been started during the Buddha's lifetime, would have led to

a fair degree of simplification and standardization of the material to be

preserved.

During the Buddha's life, the discourses were classified into nine

categories according to literary genre: sutta (prose discourses), geyya

(mixed prose and verse), veyydkarana (answers to questions), gdthd

(verse), uddna (inspired utterances), itivuttaka (memorable sayings),

jdtaka (stories of past births), abbhutadhamma (marvelous qualities), and

vedulla (catechism).

At some point after his passing, this older system

of classification was superceded by a new scheme that ordered the

texts into larger collections called Nikayas in the Theravada Buddhist

tradition, Agamas in the North Indian Buddhist schools.

Exactly when

the Nikaya-Agama scheme became ascendant is not known with cer-

tainty, but once it appeared it almost completely replaced the older

system.

The Cullavagga, one of the books of the Pali Vinaya Pitaka, gives an

account of how the authorized texts were compiled at the first

Buddhist council, held three months after the Buddha's parinibbana.

According to this report, shortly after the Buddha's death the Elder

Mahakassapa, the de facto head of the Sahgha, selected five hundred

monks, all arahants or liberated ones, to meet and compile an authori-

tative version of the teachings. The council took place during the rains

General Introduction 7

retreat at Rajagaha (modern Rajgir), the capital of Magadha, then the

dominant state of Middle India.

Mahakassapa first requested the Ven-

erable Upali, the foremost specialist on disciplinary matters, to recite

the Vinaya. On the basis of this recitation, the Vinaya Pitaka, the Com-

pilation on Discipline, was compiled. Mahakassapa then asked the

Venerable Ananda to recite "the Dhamma," that is, the discourses, and

on the basis of this recitation, the Sutta Pitaka, the Compilation of Dis-

courses, was compiled.

The Cullavagga states that when Ananda recited the Sutta Pitaka,

the Nikayas had the same contents as they do now, with the suttas

arranged in the same sequence as they now appear in the Pali Canon.

This narrative doubtlessly records past history through the lens of a

later period. The Agamas of the Buddhist schools other than the

Theravada correspond to the four main Nikayas, but they classify sut-

tas differently and arrange their contents in a different order from the

Pali Nikayas. This suggests that if the Nikaya-Agama arrangement did

arise at the first council, the council had not yet assigned suttas to their

definitive places within this scheme. Alternatively, it is possible that

this scheme arose at a later time. It could have arisen at some point

after the first council but before the Sahgha split into different schools.

If it arose during the age of sectarian divisions, it might have been

introduced by one school and then been borrowed by others, so that

the different schools would assign their texts to different places within

the scheme.

While the Cullavagga's account of the first council may include leg-

endary material mixed with historical fact, there seems no reason to

doubt Ananda's role in the preservation of the discourses. As the

Buddha's personal attendant, Ananda had learned the discourses from

him and the other great disciples, kept them in mind, and taught them

to others. During the Buddha's life he was praised for his retentive

capacities and was appointed "foremost of those who have learned

much" (etadaggam bahussutdnam).

Few monks might have had memories

that could equal Ananda's, but already during the Buddha's lifetime

individual monks must already have begun to specialize in particular

texts. The standardization and simplification of the material would have

facilitated memorization. Once the texts became classified into the

Nikayas or Agamas, the challenges of preserving and transmitting the

textual heritage were solved by organizing the textual specialists into

8 In the Buddha's Words

companies dedicated to specific collections. Different companies

within the Sahgha could thus focus on memorizing and interpreting

different collections and the community as a whole could avoid plac-

ing excessive demands on the memories of individual monks. It is in

this way that the teachings would continue to be transmitted for the

next three or four hundred years, until they were finally committed to

writing.

In the centuries following the Buddha's death, the Sahgha became

divided over disciplinary and doctrinal issues until by the third cen-

tury after the parinibbana there were at least eighteen schools of Sec-

tarian Buddhism. Each sect probably had its own collection of texts

regarded more or less as canonical, though it is possible that several

closely affiliated sects shared the same collection of authorized texts.

While the different Buddhist schools may have organized their collec-

tions differently and though their suttas show differences of detail, the

individual suttas are often remarkably similar, sometimes almost iden-

tical, and the doctrines and practices they delineate are essentially the

same.

The doctrinal differences between the schools did not arise from

the suttas themselves but from the interpretations the textual special-

ists imposed upon them. Such differences hardened after the rival

schools formalized their philosophical principles in treatises and com-

mentaries expressive of their distinctive standpoints on doctrinal

issues. So far as we can determine, the refined philosophical systems

had only minimal impact on the original texts themselves, which the

schools seemed disinclined to manipulate to suit their doctrinal agen-

das. Instead, by means of their commentaries, they endeavored to

interpret the suttas in such a way as to draw out ideas that supported

their own views. It is not unusual for such interpretations to appear

defensive and contrived, apologetic against the words of the original

texts themselves.

THE PALI CANON

Sadly, the canonical collections belonging to most of the early main-

stream Indian Buddhist schools were lost when Indian Buddhism was

devastated by the Muslims that invaded northern India in the

eleventh and twelfth centuries. These invasions effectively sounded

the death knell for Buddhism in the land of its birth. Only one complete

General Introduction 9

collection of texts belonging to one of the early Indian Buddhist schools

managed to survive intact. This is the collection preserved in the lan-

guage that we know as Pali. This collection belonged to the ancient

Theravada school, which had been transplanted to Sri Lanka in the

third century B.C.E. and thus managed to escape the havoc wrought

upon Buddhism in the motherland. About the same time, the

Theravada also spread to southeast Asia and in later centuries became

dominant throughout the region.

The Pali Canon is the collection of texts the Theravada regards as

Word of the Buddha (buddhuvacana). The fact that the texts of this col-

lection have survived as a single canon does not mean that they can all

be dated from the same period; nor does it mean that the texts forming

its most archaic nucleus are necessarily more ancient than their coun-

terparts from the other Buddhist schools, many of which have sur-

vived in Chinese or Tibetan translation as parts of entire canons or, in

a few cases, as isolated texts in another Indian language. Nevertheless,

the Pali Canon has a special importance for us, and that is so for at

least three reasons.

First, it is a complete collection all belonging to a single school. Even

though we can detect clear signs of historical development between

different portions of the canon, this alignment with a single school

gives the texts a certain degree of uniformity. Among the texts stem-

ming from the same period, we can even speak of a homogeneity of

contents, a single flavor underlying the manifold expressions of the

doctrine. This homogeneity is most evident in the four Nikayas and the

older parts of the fifth Nikaya and gives us reason to believe that with

these texts—allowing for the qualification expressed above, that they

have counterparts in other extinct Buddhist schools—we have reached

the most ancient stratum of Buddhist literature discoverable.

Second, the entire collection has been preserved in a Middle Indo-

Aryan language, one closely related to the language (or, more likely, the

various regional dialects) that the Buddha himself spoke. We call this

language Pali, but the name for the language actually arose through a

misunderstanding. The word pali properly means "text," that is, the

canonical text as distinct from the commentaries. The commentators

refer to the language in which the texts are preserved as pdlibhasa, "the

language of the texts." At some point, the term was misunderstood to

mean "the Pali language," and once the misconception arose, it took

10 In the Buddha's Words

root and has been with us ever since. Scholars regard this language as

a hybrid showing features of several Prakrit dialects used around the

third century B.C.E., subjected to a partial process of Sanskritization.

While the language is not identical with any the Buddha himself would

have spoken, it belongs to the same broad linguistic family as those he

might have used and originates from the same conceptual matrix. This

language thus reflects the thought-world that the Buddha inherited

from the wider Indian culture into which he was born, so that its words

capture the subtle nuances of that thought-world without the intru-

sion of alien influences inevitable in even the best and most scrupulous

translations. This contrasts with Chinese, Tibetan, or English transla-

tions of the texts, which reverberate with the connotations of the words

chosen from the target languages.

The third reason the Pali Canon has special importance is that this

collection is authoritative for a contemporary Buddhist school. Unlike

the textual collections of the extinct schools of Early Buddhism, which

are purely of academic interest, this collection still brims with life. It

inspires the faith of millions of Buddhists from the villages and monas-

teries of Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Southeast Asia to the cities and med-

itation centers of Europe and the Americas. It shapes their

understanding, guides them in the face of difficult ethical choices,

informs their meditative practices, and offers them the keys to liberat-

ing insight.

The Pali Canon is commonly known as the Tipitaka, the "Three Bas-

kets" or "Three Compilations." This threefold classification was not

unique to the Theravada school but was in common use among the

Indian Buddhist schools as a way to categorize the Buddhist canonical

texts. Even today the scriptures preserved in Chinese translation are

known as the Chinese Tripitaka. The three compilations of the Pali

Canon are:

1. The Vinaya Pitaka, the Compilation of Discipline, which contains

the rules laid down for the guidance of the monks and nuns and

the regulations prescribed for the harmonious functioning of the

monastic order.

2. The Sutta Pitaka, the Compilation of Discourses, which contains

the suttas, the discourses of the Buddha and those of his chief dis-

ciples as well as inspirational works in verse, verse narratives, and

certain works of a commentarial nature.

General Introduction 11

3. The Abhidhamma Pitaka, the Compilation of Philosophy, a collec-

tion of seven treatises which subject the Buddha's teachings to rig-

orous philosophical systematization.

The Abhidhamma Pitaka is obviously the product of a later phase in

the evolution of Buddhist thought than the other two Pitakas. The Pali

version represents the Theravada school's attempt to systematize the

older teachings. Other early schools apparently had their own Abhi-

dhamma systems. The Sarvastivada system is the only one whose

canonical texts have survived intact in their entirety. Its canonical col-

lection, like the Pali version, also consists of seven texts. These were

originally composed in Sanskrit but are preserved in full only in Chi-

nese translation. The system they define differs significantly from that

of its Theravada counterpart in both formulation and philosophy.

The Sutta Pitaka, which contains the records of the Buddha's dis-

courses and discussions, consists of five collections called Nikayas. In

the age of the commentators they were also known as Agamas, like

their counterparts in northern Buddhism. The four major Nikayas are:

1. The Digha Nikaya: the Collection of Long Discourses, thirty-four

suttas arranged into three vaggas, or books.

2. The Majjhima Nikaya: the Collection of Middle Length Discourses,

152 suttas arranged into three vaggas.

3. The Samyutta Nikaya: the Collection of Connected Discourses,

close to three thousand short suttas grouped into fifty-six chapters,

called samyuttas, which are in turn collected into five vaggas.

4. The Anguttara Nikaya: the Collection of Numerical Discourses (or,

perhaps, "Incremental Discourses"), approximately 2,400 short

suttas arranged into eleven chapters, called nipatas.

The Digha Nikaya and Majjhima Nikaya, at first glance, seem to be

established principally on the basis of length: the longer discourses go

into the Digha, the middle-length discourses into the Majjhima. Care-

ful tabulations of their contents, however, suggest that another factor

might underlie the distinction between these two collections. The sut-

tas of the Digha Nikaya are largely aimed at a popular audience and

seem intended to attract potential converts to the teaching by demon-

strating the superiority of the Buddha and his doctrine. The suttas of

the Majjhima Nikaya are largely directed inward toward the Buddhist

12 In the Buddha's Words

community and seem designed to acquaint newly ordained monks

with the doctrines and practices of Buddhism.

It remains an open

question whether these pragmatic purposes are the determining crite-

ria behind these two Nikayas or whether the primary criterion is

length, with these pragmatic purposes following as incidental conse-

quences of their respective differences in length.

The Samyutta Nikaya is organized by way of subject matter. Each

subject is the "yoke" (samyoga) that connects the discourses into a

samyutta or chapter. Hence the title of the collection, the "connected

(samyutta) discourses." The first book, the Book with Verses, is unique

in being compiled on the basis of literary genre. It contains suttas in

mixed prose and verse, arranged in eleven chapters by way of subject.

The other four books each contain long chapters dealing with the prin-

cipal doctrines of Early Buddhism. Books II, III, and IV each open with

a long chapter devoted to a theme of major importance, respectively,

dependent origination (chapter 12: Nidanasamyutta); the five aggre-

gates (chapter 22: Khandhasamyutta); and the six internal and external

sense bases (chapter 35: Salayatanasamyutta). Part V deals with the prin-

cipal groups of training factors that, in the post-canonical period, come

to be called the thirty-seven aids to enlightenment (bodhipakkhiya

dhamma). These include the Noble Eightfold Path (chapter 45: Magga-

samyutta), the seven factors of enlightenment (chapter 46: Bojjhanga-

samyutta), and the four establishments of mindfulness (chapter 47:

Satipatthanasamyutta). From its contents, we might infer that the

Samyutta Nikaya was intended to serve the needs of two groups

within the monastic order. One consisted of the doctrinal specialists,

those monks and nuns who sought to explore the deep implications of

the Dhamma and to elucidate them for their companions in the reli-

gious life. The other consisted of those devoted to the meditative devel-

opment of insight.

The Ahguttara Nikaya is arranged according to a numerical scheme

derived from a peculiar feature of the Buddha's pedagogic method. To

facilitate easy comprehension and memorization, the Buddha often

formulated his discourses by way of numerical sets, a format that

helped to ensure that the ideas he conveyed would be easily retained

in mind. The Ahguttara Nikaya assembles these numerical discourses

into a single massive work of eleven nipatas or chapters, each repre-

senting the number of terms upon which the constituent suttas have

General Introduction 13

been framed. Thus there is the Chapter of the Ones (ekakanipata), the

Chapter of the Twos (dukanipata), the Chapter of the Threes (tikanipata),

and so forth, up to and ending with the Chapter of the Elevens (ekadasa-

nipata). Since the various groups of path factors have been included in

the Samyutta, the Ahguttara can focus on those aspects of the training

that have not been incorporated in the repetitive sets. The Ahguttara

includes a notable proportion of suttas addressed to lay followers deal-

ing with the ethical and spiritual concerns of life within the world,

including family relationships (husbands and wives, children and par-

ents) and the proper ways to acquire, save, and utilize wealth. Other

suttas deal with the practical training of monks. The numerical

arrangement of this collection makes it particularly convenient for for-

mal instruction, and thus it could easily be drawn upon by elder

monks when teaching their pupils and by preachers when giving ser-

mons to the laity.

Besides the four major Nikayas, the Pali Sutta Pitaka includes a fifth

Nikaya, called the Khuddaka Nikaya. This name means the Minor Col-

lection. Perhaps it originally consisted merely of a number of minor

works that could not be included in the four major Nikayas. But as

more and more works were composed over the centuries and added to

it, its dimensions swelled until it became the most voluminous of the

five Nikayas. At the heart of the Khuddaka, however, is a small constel-

lation of short works composed either entirely in verse (namely, the

Dhammapada, the Theragatha, and the Therigatha) or in mixed prose

and verse (the Suttanipata, the Udana, and the Itivuttaka) whose style

and contents suggest that they are of great antiquity. Other texts of the

Khuddaka Nikaya—such as the Patisambhidamagga and the two Nid-

desas—represent the standpoint of the Theravada school and thus

must have been composed during the period of Sectarian Buddhism,

when the early schools had taken their separate paths of doctrinal

development.

The four Nikayas of the Pali Canon have counterparts in the Agamas

of the Chinese Tripitaka, though these are from different early schools.

Corresponding to each respectively there is a Dirghagama, probably

stemming from the Dharmaguptaka school, originally translated from

a Prakrit; a Madhyamagama and Samyuktagama, both stemming from

the Sarvastivada school and translated from Sanskrit; and an

Ekottaragama, corresponding to the Ahguttara Nikaya, generally

14 In the Buddha's Words

thought to have belonged to a branch of the Mahasarighika school and

to have been translated from a dialect of Middle Indo-Aryan or a

mixed dialect of Prakrit with Sanskrit elements. The Chinese Tripitaka

also contains translations of individual surras from the four collections,

perhaps from still other unidentified schools, and translations of indi-

vidual books from the Minor Collection, including two translations of

a Dhammapada (one said to be very close to the Pali version) and parts

of the Suttanipata, which, as a unified work, does not exist in Chinese

translation.

A NOTE ON STYLE

Readers of the Pali suttas are often annoyed by the repetitiveness of the

texts. It is difficult to tell how much of this stems from the Buddha

himself, who as an itinerant preacher must have used repetition to rein-

force his points, and how much is due to the compilers. It is obvious,

however, that a high proportion of the repetitiveness derives from the

process of oral transmission.

To avoid excessive repetitiveness in the translation I have had to

make ample use of elisions. In this respect I follow the printed editions

of the Pali texts, which are also highly abridged, but a translation

intended for a contemporary reader requires still more compression if

it is to avoid risking the reader's wrath. On the other hand, I have been

keen to see that nothing essential to the original text, including the fla-

vor, has been lost due to the abridgment. The ideals of considerateness

to the reader and fidelity to the text sometimes make contrary demands

on a translator.

The treatment of repetition patterns in which the same utterance is

made regarding a set of items is a perpetual problem in translating

Pali suttas. When translating a sutta about the five aggregates, for

example, one is tempted to forgo the enumeration of the individual

aggregates and instead turn the sutta into a general statement about

the aggregates as a class. To my mind, such an approach risks turning

translation into paraphrase and thereby losing too much of the origi-

nal. My general policy has been to translate the full utterance in rela-

tion to the first and last members of the set and merely to enumerate

the intermediate members separated by ellipsis points. Thus, in a sutta

about the five aggregates, I render the statement in full only for form

General Introduction 15

and consciousness, and in between have "feeling ... perception ... voli-

tional formations ...," implying thereby that the full statement like-

wise applies to them.

This approach has required the frequent use of ellipsis points, a prac-

tice that also invites criticism. When faced with repetitive passages in

the narrative framework, I have sometimes condensed them rather

than use ellipsis points to show where text is being elided. However,

with texts of doctrinal exposition I adhere to the practice described in

the preceding paragraph. I think the translator has the responsibility,

when translating passages of doctrinal significance, to show exactly

where text is being elided, and for this ellipsis points remain the best

tool at hand.

I. The Human Condition

N *

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INTRODUCTION

Like other religious teachings, the Buddha's teaching originates as a re-

sponse to the strains at the heart of the human condition. What distin-

guishes his teaching from other religious approaches to the human

condition is the directness, thoroughness, and uncompromising real-

ism with which he looks at these strains. The Buddha does not offer us

palliatives that leave the underlying maladies untouched beneath the

surface; rather, he traces our existential illness down to its most funda-

mental causes, so persistent and destructive, and shows us how these

can be totally uprooted. However, while the Dhamma will eventually

lead to the wisdom that eradicates the causes of suffering, it does not

begin there but with observations about the hard facts of everyday

experience. Here too its directness, thoroughness, and tough realism

are evident. The teaching begins by calling upon us to develop a fac-

ulty called yoniso manasikara, careful attention. The Buddha asks us to

stop drifting thoughtlessly through our lives and instead to pay care-

ful attention to simple truths that are everywhere available to us, clam-

oring for the sustained consideration they deserve.

One of the most obvious and inescapable of these truths is also

among the most difficult for us to fully acknowledge, namely, that we

are bound to grow old, fall ill, and die. It is commonly assumed that the

Buddha beckons us to recognize the reality of old age and death in

order to motivate us to enter the path of renunciation leading to

Nibbana, complete liberation from the round of birth and death. How-

ever, while this may be his ultimate intention, it is not the first response

he seeks to evoke in us when we turn to him for guidance. The initial

response the Buddha intends to arouse in us is an ethical one. By call-

ing our attention to our bondage to old age and death, he seeks to

inspire in us a firm resolution to turn away from unwholesome ways

of living and to embrace instead wholesome alternatives.

Again, the Buddha grounds his initial ethical appeal not only upon

a compassionate feeling for other beings, but also upon our instinctive

concern for our own long-term welfare and happiness. He tries to

In the Buddha's Words

make us see that to act in accordance with ethical guidelines will enable

us to secure our own well-being both now and in the long-term future.

His argument hinges on the important premise that actions have con-

sequences. If we are to alter our accustomed ways, we must be con-

vinced of the validity of this principle. Specifically, to change from a

self-stultifying way of life to one that is truly fruitful and inwardly

rewarding, we must realize that our actions have consequences for our-

selves, consequences that can rebound upon us both in this life and in

subsequent lives.

The three suttas that constitute the first section of this chapter estab-

lish this point eloquently, each in its own way. Text 1,1(1) enunciates the

inevitable law that all beings who have taken birth must undergo aging

and death. Although at first glance the discourse seems to be stating a

mere fact of nature, by citing as examples members of the upper strata

of society (wealthy rulers, brahmins, and householders) and liberated

arahants, it insinuates a subtle moral message into its words. Text 1,1(2)

brings out this message more explicitly with its impressive simile of the

mountain, which drives home the point that when "aging and death

are rolling in" on us, our task in life is to live righteously and do whole-

some and meritorious deeds. The sutta on the "divine messengers"—

Text 1,1(3)—establishes the corollary to this: when we fail to recognize

the "divine messengers" in our midst, when we miss the hidden warn-

ing signals of old age, illness, and death, we become negligent and

behave recklessly, creating unwholesome kamma with the potential to

yield dreadful consequences.

The realization that we are bound to grow old and die breaks the

spell of infatuation cast over us by sensual pleasures, wealth, and

power. It dispels the mist of confusion and motivates us to take fresh

stock of our purposes in life. We may not be ready to give up family

and possessions for a life of homeless wandering and solitary medita-

tion, but this is not an option the Buddha generally expects of his

householder disciples. Rather, as we saw above, the first lesson he

draws from the fact that our lives end in old age and death is an ethi-

cal one interwoven with the twin principles of kamma and rebirth. The

law of kamma stipulates that our unwholesome and wholesome

actions have consequences extending far beyond this present life:

unwholesome actions lead to rebirth in states of misery and bring

future pain and suffering; wholesome actions lead to a pleasant rebirth

The Human Condition 21

and bring future well-being and happiness. Since we have to grow old

and die, we should be constantly aware that any present prosperity

we might enjoy is merely temporary. We can enjoy it only as long as we

are young and healthy; and when we die, our newly acquired kamma

will gain the opportunity to ripen and bring forth its own results. We

must then reap the due fruits of our deeds. With an eye to our long-

term future welfare, we should scrupulously avoid evil deeds that

result in suffering and diligently engage in wholesome deeds that gen-

erate happiness here and in future lives.

In the second section, we explore three aspects of human life that I

have collected under the heading "The Tribulations of Unreflective

Living." These types of suffering differ from those connected with old

age and death in an important respect. Old age and death are bound

up with bodily existence and are thus unavoidable, common to both

ordinary people and liberated arahants—a point made in the first text

of this chapter. In contrast, the three texts included in this section all

distinguish between the ordinary person, called "the uninstructed

worldling" (assutava puthujjana), and the wise follower of the Buddha,

called the "instructed noble disciple" (sutava ariyasavaka).

The first of these distinctions, drawn in Text 1,2(1), revolves

around the response to painful feelings. Both the worldling and the

noble disciple experience painful bodily feelings, but they respond

to these feelings differently. The worldling reacts to them with aver-

sion and therefore, on top of the painful bodily feeling, also experi-

ences a painful mental feeling: sorrow, resentment, or distress. The

noble disciple, when afflicted with bodily pain, endures such feeling

patiently, without sorrow, resentment, or distress. It is commonly

assumed that physical and mental pain are inseparably linked, but

the Buddha makes a clear demarcation between the two. He holds

that while bodily existence is inevitably bound up with physical

pain, such pain need not trigger the emotional reactions of misery,

fear, resentment, and distress with which we habitually respond to

it. Through mental training we can develop the mindfulness and

clear comprehension necessary to endure physical pain coura-

geously, with patience and equanimity. Through insight we can

develop sufficient wisdom to overcome our dread of painful feel-

mgs and our need to seek relief in distracting binges of sensual self-

indulgence.

22 In the Buddha's Words

Another aspect of human life that brings to the fore the differences

between the worldling and the noble disciple is the changing vicissi-

tudes of fortune. The Buddhist texts neatly reduce these to four pairs

of opposites, known as the eight worldly conditions (attha lokadhamma):

gain and loss, fame and disrepute, praise and blame, pleasure and

pain. Text 1,2(2) shows how the worldling and the noble disciple dif-

fer in their responses to these changes. While the worldling is elated by

success in achieving gain, fame, praise, and pleasure, and dejected

when confronted with their undesired opposites, the noble disciple

remains unperturbed. By applying the understanding of imperma-

nence to both favorable and unfavorable conditions, the noble disciple

can abide in equanimity, not attached to favorable conditions, not

repelled by unfavorable ones. Such a disciple gives up likes and dis-

likes, sorrow and distress, and ultimately wins the highest blessing of

all: complete freedom from suffering.

Text 1,2(3) examines the plight of the worldling at a still more funda-

mental level. Because they misconceive things, worldlings are agitated

by change, especially when that change affects their own bodies and

minds. The Buddha classifies the constituents of body and mind into

five categories known as "the five aggregates subject to clinging"

(panc'upadanakkhandha): form, feeling, perception, volitional forma-

tions, and consciousness (for details, see pp. 305-07). These five aggre-

gates are the building blocks that we typically use to construct our

sense of personal identity; they are the things that we cling to as being

"mine," "I," and "my self." Whatever we identify with, whatever we

take to be a self or the possessions of a self, can all be classified among

these five aggregates. The five aggregates are thus the ultimate

grounds of "identification" and "appropriation," the two basic activi-

ties by which we establish a sense of selfhood. Since we invest our

notions of selfhood and personal identity with an intense emotional

concern, when the objects to which they are fastened—the five aggre-

gates—undergo change, we naturally experience anxiety and distress.

In our perception, it is not mere impersonal phenomena that are under-

going change, but our very identities, our cherished selves, and this is

what we fear most of all. However, as the present text shows, a noble

disciple has clearly seen with wisdom the delusive nature of all notions

of permanent selfhood and thus no longer identifies with the five

aggregates. Therefore the noble disciple can confront their change

The Human Condition 23

without anxious concern, unperturbed in the face of their alteration,

decay, and destruction.

Agitation and turmoil afflict human life not only at the personal and

private level, but also in our social interactions. From the most ancient

times, our world has always been one of violent confrontations and

conflict. The names, places, and instruments of destruction may

change, but the forces behind them, the motivations, the expressions of

greed and hate, remain fairly constant. The Nikayas testify that the

Buddha was intensely aware of this dimension of the human condition.

Although his teaching, with its stress on ethical self-discipline and

mental self-cultivation, aims primarily at personal enlightenment and

liberation, the Buddha also sought to offer people a refuge from the

violence and injustice that rack human lives in such cruel ways. This

is apparent in his emphasis on loving-kindness and compassion; on

harmlessness in action and gentleness in speech; and on the peaceful

resolution of disputes.

The third section of this chapter includes four short texts dealing

with the underlying roots of violent conflict and injustice. We can see

from these texts that the Buddha does not clamor for changes merely

in the outer structures of society. He demonstrates that these dark phe-

nomena are external projections of the unwholesome proclivities of the

human mind and thus points to the need for inner change as a paral-

lel condition for establishing peace and social justice. Each of the four

texts included in this section traces conflict, violence, political oppres-

sion, and economic injustice back to their causes; each in its own way

locates these causes within the mind.

Text 1,3(1) explains conflicts between laypeople as arising from

attachment to sensual pleasures, conflicts between ascetics as arising

from attachment to views. Text 1,3(2), a dialogue between the Buddha

and Sakka, the pre-Buddhistic Indian ruler of the devas, traces hatred

and enmity to envy and niggardliness; from there the Buddha traces

them back to fundamental distortions that affect the way our percep-

tion and cognition process the information provided by the senses.

Text 1,3(3) offers another version of the famous chain of causation,

which proceeds from feeling to craving, and from craving via other

conditions to "the taking up of clubs and weapons" and other types

of violent behavior. Text 1,3(4) depicts how the three roots of evil—

greed, hatred, and delusion—have terrible repercussions on a whole

24 In the Buddha's Words

society, issuing in violence, the lust for power, and the unjust inflic-

tion of suffering. All four texts imply that any significant and lasting

transformations of society require significant changes in the moral

fiber of individual human beings; for as long as greed, hatred, and

delusion run rampant as determinants of conduct, the consequences

are bound to be consistently detrimental.

The Buddha's teaching addresses a fourth aspect of the human con-

dition which, unlike the three we have so far examined, is not imme-

diately perceptible to us. This is our bondage to the round of rebirths.

From the selection of texts included in the final section in this chapter,

we see that the Buddha teaches our individual lifespan to be merely a

single phase within a series of rebirths that has been proceeding with-

out any discernible beginning in time. This series of rebirths is called

samsdra, a Pali word which suggests the idea of directionless wander-

ing. No matter how far back in time we may seek a beginning to the

universe, we never find an initial moment of creation. No matter how

far back we may trace any given individual sequence of lives, we can

never arrive at a first point. According to Texts 1,4(1) and 1,4(2), even

if we were to trace the sequence of our mothers and fathers across

world systems, we would only come upon still more mothers and

fathers stretching back into the far horizons.

Moreover, the process is not only beginningless but is also poten-

tially endless. As long as ignorance and craving remain intact, the

process will continue indefinitely into the future with no end in sight.

For the Buddha and Early Buddhism, this is above all the defining cri-

sis at the heart of the human condition: we are bound to a chain of

rebirths, and bound to it by nothing other than our own ignorance and

craving. The pointless wandering on in samsara occurs against a cos-

mic background of inconceivably vast dimensions. The period of time

that it takes for a world system to evolve, reach its phase of maximum

expansion, contract, and then disintegrate is called a kappa (Skt: kalpa),

an eon. Text 1,4(3) offers a vivid simile to suggest the eon's duration;

Text 1,4(4), another vivid simile to illustrate the incalculable number of

the eons through which we have wandered.

As beings wander and roam from life to life, shrouded in darkness,

they fall again and again into the chasm of birth, aging, sickness, and

death. But because their craving propels them forward in a relentless

quest for gratification, they seldom pause long enough to step back

The Human Condition 25

and attend carefully to their existential plight. As Text 1,4(5) states, they

instead just keep revolving around the "five aggregates" in the way a

dog on a leash might run around a post or pillar. Since their ignorance

prevents them from recognizing the vicious nature of their condition,

they cannot discern even the tracks of a path to deliverance. Most

beings live immersed in the enjoyment of sensual pleasures. Others,

driven by the need for power, status, and esteem, pass their lives in

vain attempts to fill an unquenchable thirst. Many, fearful of annihila-

tion at death, construct belief systems that ascribe to their individual

selves, their souls, the prospect of eternal life. A few yearn for a path

to liberation but do not know where to find one. It was precisely to

offer such a path that the Buddha has appeared in our midst.

I. THE HUMAN CONDITION

1. OLD AGE, ILLNESS, AND DEATH

(1) Aging and Death

At Savatthi, King Pasenadi of Kosala said to the Blessed One: "Vener-

able sir, is anyone who is born free from aging and death?"

"Great king, no one who is born is free from aging and death. Even

those affluent khattiyas—rich, with great wealth and property, with

abundant gold and silver, abundant treasures and commodities, abun-

dant wealth and grain—because they have been born, are not free from

aging and death. Even those affluent brahmins ... affluent household-

ers—rich ... with abundant wealth and grain—because they have been

born, are not free from aging and death. Even those monks who are

arahants, whose taints are destroyed, who have lived the holy life,

done what had to be done, laid down the burden, reached their own

goal, utterly destroyed the fetters of existence, and are completely lib-

erated through final knowledge: even for them this body is subject to

breaking up, subject to being laid down.

"The beautiful chariots of kings wear out,

This body too undergoes decay.

But the Dhamma of the good does not decay:

So the good proclaim along with the good."

(SN 3:3; I 71 <163-64>)

(2) The Simile of the Mountain

At Savatthi, in the middle of the day, King Pasenadi of Kosala

approached the Blessed One, paid homage to him, and sat down to

one side. The Blessed One then asked him: "Now where are you com-

ing from, great king, in the middle of the day?"

"Just now, venerable sir, I have been engaged in those affairs of

kingship typical for kings, who are intoxicated with the intoxication

The Human Conditio?! 27

of sovereignty, who are obsessed by greed for sensual pleasures, who

have attained stable control in their country, and who rule having con-

quered a great sphere of territory on earth."

"What do you think, great king? Suppose a man would come to you

from the east, one who is trustworthy and reliable, and would tell you:

'For sure, great king, you should know this: I am coming from the east,

and there I saw a great mountain high as the clouds coming this way,

crushing all living beings. Do whatever you think should be done, great

king.' Then a second man would come to you from the west... a third

man from the north ... and a fourth man from the south, one who is

trustworthy and reliable, and would tell you: 'For sure, great king, you

should know this: I am coming from the south, and there I saw a great

mountain high as the clouds coming this way, crushing all living beings.

Do whatever you think should be done, great king.' If, great king, such

a great peril should arise, such a terrible destruction of human life, the

human state being so difficult to obtain, what should be done?"

"If, venerable sir, such a great peril should arise, such a terrible

destruction of human life, the human state being so difficult to obtain,

what else should be done but to live by the Dhamma, to live right-

eously, and to do wholesome and meritorious deeds?"

"I inform you, great king, I announce to you, great king: aging and

death are rolling in on you. When aging and death are rolling in on

you, great king, what should be done?"

"As aging and death are rolling in on me, venerable sir, what else

should be done but to live by the Dhamma, to live righteously, and to

do wholesome and meritorious deeds?

"Venerable sir, kings intoxicated with the intoxication of sovereignty,

obsessed by greed for sensual pleasures, who have attained stable con-

trol in their country and rule over a great sphere of territory, conquer

by means of elephant battles, cavalry battles, chariot battles, and

infantry battles; but there is no hope of victory by such battles, no

chance of success, when aging and death are rolling in. In this royal

court, venerable sir, there are counselors who, when the enemies arrive,

are capable of dividing them by subterfuge; but there is no hope of vic-

tory by subterfuge, no chance of success, when aging and death are

rolling in. In this royal court, venerable sir, there exists abundant bul-

lion and gold stored in vaults and lofts, and with such wealth we are

capable of mollifying the enemies when they come; but there is no

28 In the Buddha's Words

hope of victory by wealth, no chance of success, when aging and death

are rolling in. As aging and death are rolling in on me, venerable sir,

what else should I do but live by the Dhamma, live righteously, and do

wholesome and meritorious deeds?"

"So it is, great king! So it is, great king! As aging and death are rolling

in on you, what else should you do but live by the Dhamma, live right-

eously, and do wholesome and meritorious deeds?"

This is what the Blessed One said. Having said this, the Fortunate

One, the Teacher, further said this:

"Just as mountains of solid rock,

Massive, reaching to the sky,

Might draw together from all sides,

Crushing all in the four quarters—

So aging and death come

Rolling over living beings—

"Khattiyas, brahmins, vessas, suddas,

Outcasts and scavengers:

They spare none along the way

But come crushing everything.

"There's no hope there for victory

By elephant troops, chariots, and infantry.

One can't defeat them by subterfuge,

Or buy them off by means of wealth.

"Therefore a person of wisdom here,

Out of regard for his own good,

Steadfast, should settle faith

In the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sahgha.

"When one conducts oneself by Dhamma

With body, speech, and mind,

They praise one here in the present life,

And after death one rejoices in heaven."

(SN 3:25; 1100-102 <224-29>)

The Human Condition 29

(3) The Divine Messengers

"There are, monks, three divine messengers.

What three?

"There is a person of bad conduct in body, speech, and mind. On the

dissolution of the body, after death, he is reborn in the plane of misery,

in a bad destination, in a lower world, in hell. There the warders of

hell seize him by both arms and take him before Yama, the Lord of

Death,

saying: 'This man, your majesty, had no respect for father and

mother, nor for ascetics and brahmins, nor did he honor the elders of

the family. May your majesty inflict due punishment on him!'

"Then, monks, King Yama questions that man, examines him, and

addresses him concerning the first divine messenger: 'Didn't you ever

see, my good man, the first divine messenger appearing among

humankind?'

"And he replies: 'No, Lord, I did not see him.'

"Then King Yama says to him: 'But, my good man, didn't you ever

see a woman or a man, eighty, ninety, or a hundred years old, frail,

bent like a roof bracket, crooked, leaning on a stick, shakily going

along, ailing, youth and vigor gone, with broken teeth, with gray and

scanty hair or bald, wrinkled, with blotched limbs?'

"And the man replies: 'Yes, Lord, I have seen this.'

"Then King Yama says to him: 'My good man, didn't it ever occur to

you, an intelligent and mature person, "I too am subject to old age and

cannot escape it. Let me now do noble deeds by body, speech, and

mind"?'

"'No, Lord, I could not do it. I was negligent.'

"Then King Yama says: 'Through negligence, my good man, you

have failed to do noble deeds by body, speech, and mind. Well, you

will be treated as befits your negligence. That evil action of yours was

not done by mother or father, brothers, sisters, friends or companions,

nor by relatives, devas, ascetics, or brahmins. But you alone have done

that evil deed, and you will have to experience the fruit.'

"When, monks, King Yama has questioned, examined, and

addressed him thus concerning the first divine messenger, he again

questions, examines, and addresses the man about the second one, say-

ing: 'Didn't you ever see, my good man, the second divine messenger

appearing among humankind?'

"'No, Lord, I did not see him.'

30 In the Buddha's Words

"'But, my good man, didn't you ever see a woman or a man who

was sick and in pain, seriously ill, lying in his own filth, having to be

lifted up by some and put to bed by others?'

"'Yes, Lord, I have seen this.'

"'My good man, didn't it ever occur to you, an intelligent and

mature person, "I too am subject to illness and cannot escape it. Let

me now do noble deeds by body, speech, and mind"?'

"'No, Lord, I could not do it. I was negligent.'

"'Through negligence, my good man, you have failed to do noble

deeds by body, speech, and mind. Well, you will be treated as befits

your negligence. That evil action of yours was not done by mother or

father, brothers, sisters, friends or companions, nor by relatives, devas,

ascetics, or brahmins. But you alone have done that evil deed, and you

will have to experience the fruit.'

"When, monks, King Yama has questioned, examined, and addressed

him thus concerning the second divine messenger, he again questions,

examines, and addresses the man about the third one, saying: 'Didn't

you ever see, my good man, the third divine messenger appearing

among humankind?'

"'No, Lord, I did not see him.'

"'But, my good man, didn't you ever see a woman or a man one,

two, or three days dead, the corpse swollen, discolored, and festering?'

"'Yes, Lord, I have seen this.'

"'Then, my good man, didn't it ever occur to you, an intelligent and

mature person, "I too am subject to death and cannot escape it. Let me

now do noble deeds by body, speech, and mind"?'

'"No, Lord, I could not do it. I was negligent.'

"'Through negligence, my good man, you have failed to do noble

deeds by body, speech, and mind. Well, you will be treated as befits

your negligence. That evil action of yours was not done by mother or

father, brothers, sisters, friends or companions, nor by relatives, devas,

ascetics, or brahmins. But you alone have done that evil deed, and you

will have to experience the fruit.'"

(from AN 3:35; 1138-40)

The Human Condition 31

2. THE TRIBULATIONS OF UNREFLECTIVE LIVING

(1) The Dart of Painful Feeling

"Monks, when the uninstructed worldling experiences a painful feel-

ing, he sorrows, grieves, and laments; he weeps beating his breast and

becomes distraught. He feels two feelings—a bodily one and a mental

one. Suppose they were to strike a man with a dart, and then strike

him immediately afterward with a second dart, so that the man would

feel a feeling caused by two darts. So too, when the uninstructed

worldling experiences a painful feeling, he feels two feelings—a bod-

ily one and a mental one.

"While experiencing that same painful feeling, he harbors aversion

toward it. When he harbors aversion toward painful feeling, the under-

lying tendency to aversion toward painful feeling lies behind this.

While experiencing painful feeling, he seeks delight in sensual pleas-

ure. For what reason? Because the uninstructed worldling does not

know of any escape from painful feeling other than sensual pleasure.

When he seeks delight in sensual pleasure, the underlying tendency to

lust for pleasant feeling lies behind this. He does not understand as it

really is the origin and the passing away, the gratification, the danger,

and the escape in the case of these feelings.

When he does not under-

stand these things, the underlying tendency to ignorance in regard to

neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling lies behind this.

"If he feels a pleasant feeling, he feels it attached. If he feels a painful

feeling, he feels it attached. If he feels a neither-painful-nor-pleasant

feeling, he feels it attached. This, monks, is called an uninstructed

worldling who is attached to birth, aging, and death; who is attached

to sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair; who is attached to

suffering, I say.

"Monks, when the instructed noble disciple experiences a painful

feeling, he does not sorrow, grieve, or lament; he does not weep beat-

ing his breast and become distraught.

He feels one feeling—a bodily

one, not a mental one. Suppose they were to strike a man with a dart,

but they would not strike him immediately afterward with a second

dart, so that the man would feel a feeling caused by one dart only. So

too, when the instructed noble disciple experiences a painful feeling, he

feels one feeling—a bodily one, and not a mental one.

"While experiencing that same painful feeling, he harbors no aversion

32 In the Buddha's Words

toward it. Since he harbors no aversion toward painful feeling, the

underlying tendency to aversion toward painful feeling does not lie

behind this. While experiencing painful feeling, he does not seek delight

in sensual pleasure. For what reason? Because the instructed noble dis-

ciple knows of an escape from painful feeling other than sensual pleas-

ure. Since he does not seek delight in sensual pleasure, the underlying

tendency to lust for pleasant feeling does not lie behind this. He under-

stands as it really is the origin and the passing away, the gratification,

the danger, and the escape in the case of these feelings. Since he under-

stands these things, the underlying tendency to ignorance in regard to

neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling does not lie behind this.

"If he feels a pleasant feeling, he feels it detached. If he feels a painful

feeling, he feels it detached. If he feels a neither-painful-nor-pleasant

feeling, he feels it detached. This, monks, is called a noble disciple who

is detached from birth, aging, and death; who is detached from sor-

row, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair; who is detached from

suffering, I say.

"This, monks, is the distinction, the disparity, the difference between

the instructed noble disciple and the uninstructed worldling."

(SN 36:6; IV 207-10)

(2) The Vicissitudes of Life

"These eight worldly conditions, monks, keep the world turning

around, and the world turns around these eight worldly conditions.

What eight? Gain and loss, fame and disrepute, praise and blame,

pleasure and pain.

"These eight worldly conditions, monks, are encountered by an unin-

structed worldling, and they are also encountered by an instructed

noble disciple. What now is the distinction, the disparity, the difference

between an instructed noble disciple and an uninstructed worldling?"

"Venerable sir, our knowledge of these things has its roots in the

Blessed One; it has the Blessed One as guide and resort. It would be

good, venerable sir, if the Blessed One would clarify the meaning of that

statement. Having heard it from him, the monks will bear it in mind."

"Listen then, monks, and attend carefully. I shall speak."

"Yes, venerable sir," the monks replied. The Blessed One then

spoke thus:

The Human Condition 33

"When an uninstructed worldling, monks, comes upon gain, he does

not reflect on it thus: 'This gain that has come to me is impermanent,

bound up with suffering, subject to change.' He does not know it as it

really is. And when he comes upon loss, fame and disrepute, praise

and blame, he does not reflect on them thus: 'All these are imperma-

nent, bound up with suffering, subject to change.' He does not know

them as they really are. With such a person, gain and loss, fame and

disrepute, praise and blame, pleasure and pain keep his mind

engrossed. When gain comes he is elated and when he meets with loss

he is dejected. When fame comes he is elated and when he meets with

disrepute he is dejected. When praise comes he is elated and when he

meets with blame he is dejected. When he experiences pleasure he is

elated and when he experiences pain he is dejected. Being thus

involved in likes and dislikes, he will not be freed from birth, aging,

and death, from sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair; he

will not be freed from suffering, I say.

"But, monks, when an instructed noble disciple comes upon gain,

he reflects on it thus: 'This gain that has come to me is impermanent,

bound up with suffering, subject to change.' And so he will reflect

when loss and so forth come upon him. He understands all these things

as they really are, and they do not engross his mind. Thus he will not

be elated by gain and dejected by loss; elated by fame and dejected by

disrepute; elated by praise and dejected by blame; elated by pleasure

and dejected by pain. Having thus given up likes and dislikes, he will

be freed from birth, aging, and death, from sorrow, lamentation, pain,

dejection, and despair; he will be freed from suffering, I say.

"This, monks, is the distinction, the disparity, the difference between

an instructed noble disciple and an uninstructed worldling."

(AN 8:6; IV 157-59)

(3) Anxiety Due to Change

'Monks, I will teach you agitation through clinging and non-agitation

through nonclinging.

Listen and attend carefully. I shall speak."

"Yes, venerable sir," those monks replied. The Blessed One said this:

'And how, monks, is there agitation through clinging? Here, monks,

the uninstructed worldling, who is not a seer of the noble ones and is

unskilled and undisciplined in their Dhamma, who is not a seer of

34 In the Buddha's Words

superior persons and is unskilled and undisciplined in their Dhamma,

regards form as self, or self as possessing form, or form as in self, or self

as in form.

That form of his changes and alters. With the change and

alteration of form, his consciousness becomes preoccupied with the

change of form. Agitation and a constellation of mental states born of

preoccupation with the change of form remain obsessing his mind.

Because his mind is obsessed, he is frightened, distressed, and anx-

ious, and through clinging he becomes agitated.

"He regards feeling as self ... perception as self ... volitional forma-

tions as self ... consciousness as self, or self as possessing conscious-

ness, or consciousness as in self, or self as in consciousness. That

consciousness of his changes and alters. With the change and alter-

ation of consciousness, his consciousness becomes preoccupied with

the change of consciousness. Agitation and a constellation of mental

states born of preoccupation with the change of consciousness remain

obsessing his mind. Because his mind is obsessed, he is frightened, dis-

tressed, and anxious, and through clinging he becomes agitated.

"It is in such a way, monks, that there is agitation through clinging.

"And how, monks, is there non-agitation through nonclinging?

Here, monks, the instructed noble disciple, who is a seer of the noble

ones and is skilled and disciplined in their Dhamma, who is a seer of

superior persons and is skilled and disciplined in their Dhamma, does

not regard form as self, or self as possessing form, or form as in self, or

self as in form.

That form of his changes and alters. Despite the change

and alteration of form, his consciousness does not become preoccu-

pied with the change of form. No agitation and constellation of men-

tal states born of preoccupation with the change of form remain

obsessing his mind. Because his mind is not obsessed, he is not fright-

ened, distressed, or anxious, and through nonclinging he does not

become agitated.

"He does not regard feeling as self ... perception as self ... volitional

formations as self ... consciousness as self, or self as possessing con-

sciousness, or consciousness as in self, or self as in consciousness. That

consciousness of his changes and alters. Despite the change and alter-

ation of consciousness, his consciousness does not become preoccu-

pied with the change of consciousness. No agitation and constellation

of mental states born of preoccupation with the change of conscious-

ness remain obsessing his mind. Because his mind is not obsessed, he

The Human Condition 35

is not frightened, distressed, or anxious, and through nonclinging he

does not become agitated.

"It is in such a way, monks, that there is non-agitation through non-

clinging."

(SN 22:7; III 15-18)

3. A WORLD IN TURMOIL

(1) The Origin of Conflict

The brahmin Aramadanda approached the Venerable Mahakaccana,

exchanged friendly greetings with him, and asked him: "Why is it,

Master Kaccana, that khattiyas fight with khattiyas, brahmins with

brahmins, and householders with householders?"

"It is, brahmin, because of attachment to sensual pleasures, adher-

ence to sensual pleasures, fixation on sensual pleasures, addiction to

sensual pleasures, obsession with sensual pleasures, holding firmly to

sensual pleasures that khattiyas fight with khattiyas, brahmins with

brahmins, and householders with householders."

"Why is it, Master Kaccana, that ascetics fight with ascetics?"

"It is, brahmin, because of attachment to views, adherence to views,

fixation on views, addiction to views, obsession with views, holding

firmly to views that ascetics fight with ascetics."

(AN 2: iv, 6, abridged; 166)

(2) Why Do Beings Live in Hate?

2.1. Sakka, ruler of the devas,

asked the Blessed One: "Beings wish to

live without hate, harming, hostility, or enmity; they wish to live in

peace. Yet they live in hate, harming one another, hostile, and as ene-

mies. By what fetters are they bound, sir, that they live in such a way?"

[The Blessed One said:] "Ruler of the devas, it is the bonds of envy

and niggardliness that bind beings so that, although they wish to live

without hate, hostility, or enmity, and to live in peace, yet they live in

hate, harming one another, hostile, and as enemies."

This was the Blessed One's reply, and Sakka, delighted, exclaimed:

So it is, Blessed One! So it is, Fortunate One! Through the Blessed One's

answer I have overcome my doubt and gotten rid of uncertainty."

36 In the Buddha's Words

2.2. Then Sakka, having expressed his appreciation, asked another

question: "But, sir, what gives rise to envy and niggardliness, what is

their origin, how are they born, how do they arise? When what is pres-

ent do they arise, and when what is absent do they not arise?"

"Envy and niggardliness, ruler of the devas, arise from liking and dis-

liking; this is their origin, this is how they are born, how they arise. When

these are present, they arise, when these are absent, they do not arise."

"But, sir, what gives rise to liking and disliking...?"—"They arise,

ruler of the devas, from desire...."—"And what gives rise to de-

sire. ..?"—"It arises, ruler of the devas, from thinking. When the mind

thinks about something, desire arises; when the mind thinks of noth-

ing, desire does not arise."

"But, sir, what gives rise to thinking...?"

"Thinking, ruler of the devas, arises from elaborated perceptions

and notions.

When elaborated perceptions and notions are present,

thinking arises. When elaborated perceptions and notions are absent,

thinking does not arise."

(from DN 21: Sakkapanha Sutta; II276-77)

(3) The Dark Chain of Causation

9. "Thus, Ananda, in dependence upon feeling there is craving; in

dependence upon craving there is pursuit; in dependence upon pursuit

there is gain; in dependence upon gain there is decision-making; in

dependence upon decision-making there is desire and lust; in depend-

ence upon desire and lust there is attachment; in dependence upon

attachment there is possessiveness; in dependence upon possessive-

ness there is niggardliness; in dependence upon niggardliness there is

defensiveness; and because of defensiveness, various evil unwhole-

some things originate—the taking up of clubs and weapons, conflicts,

quarrels, and disputes, insults, slander, and falsehood."

(from DN 15: Mahanidana Sutta; II58)

(4) The Roots of Violence and Oppression

"Greed, hatred, and delusion of every kind are unwholesome.

What-

ever action a greedy, hating, and deluded person heaps up—by deeds,

words, or thoughts—that too is unwholesome. Whatever suffering

The Human Condition 37

such a person, overpowered by greed, hatred, and delusion, his

thoughts controlled by them, inflicts under false pretexts upon

another—by killing, imprisonment, confiscation of property, false accu-

sations, or expulsion—being prompted in this by the thought, T have

power and I want power/ all this is unwholesome too."

(from AN 3:69; I 201-2)

4. WITHOUT DISCOVERABLE BEGINNING

(1) Grass and Sticks

The Blessed One said this: "Monks, this samsara is without discover-

able beginning.

A first point is not discerned of beings roaming and

wandering on hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving. Suppose,

monks, a man would cut up whatever grass, sticks, branches, and

foliage there are in this Jambudipa

and collect them together into a sin-

gle heap. Having done so, he would put them down, saying for each

one: 'This is my mother, this my mother's mother.' The sequence of

that man's mothers and grandmothers would not come to an end, yet

the grass, sticks, branches, and foliage in this Jambudipa would be used

up and exhausted. For what reason? Because, monks, this samsara is

without discoverable beginning. A first point is not discerned of beings

roaming and wandering on hindered by ignorance and fettered by

craving. For such a long time, monks, you have experienced suffering,

anguish, and disaster, and swelled the cemetery. It is enough to become

disenchanted with all formations, enough to become dispassionate

toward them, enough to be liberated from them."

(SN 15:1; II178)

(2) Balls of Clay

"Monks, this samsara is without discoverable beginning. A first point

is not discerned of beings roaming and wandering on hindered by

ignorance and fettered by craving. Suppose, monks, a man would

reduce this great earth to balls of clay the size of jujube kernels and

put them down, saying [for each one]: 'This is my father, this my

father's father.' The sequence of that man's fathers and grandfathers

would not come to an end, yet this great earth would be used up and

38 In the Buddha's Words

exhausted. For what reason? Because, monks, this samsara is without

discoverable beginning. A first point is not discerned of beings roam-

ing and wandering on hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving.

For such a long time, monks, you have experienced suffering, anguish,

and disaster, and swelled the cemetery. It is enough to become disen-

chanted with all formations, enough to become dispassionate toward

them, enough to be liberated from them."

(SN 15:2; II179)

(3) The Mountain

A certain monk approached the Blessed One, paid homage to him, sat

down to one side, and said to him: "Venerable sir, how long is an

eon?"

"An eon is long, monk. It is not easy to count it and say it is so many

years, or so many hundreds of years, or so many thousands of years,

or so many hundreds of thousands of years."

"Then is it possible to give a simile, venerable sir?"

"It is possible, monk," the Blessed One said. "Suppose, monk, there

was a great stone mountain a yojana long, a yojana wide, and a yojana

high, without holes or crevices, one solid mass of rock.

At the end of

every hundred years a man would stroke it once with a piece of fine

cloth. That great stone mountain might by this effort be worn away

and eliminated but the eon would still not have come to an end. So

long is an eon, monk. And of eons of such length, we have wandered

through so many eons, so many hundreds of eons, so many thousands

of eons, so many hundreds of thousands of eons. For what reason?

Because, monk, this samsara is without discoverable beginning.... It is

enough to be liberated from them."

(SN 15:5; II181-82)

(4) The River Ganges

At Rajagaha, in the Bamboo Grove, the Squirrel Sanctuary, a certain

brahmin approached the Blessed One and exchanged greetings with

him. When they had concluded their greetings and cordial talk, he sat

down to one side and asked him: "Master Gotama, how many eons

have elapsed and gone by?"

The Human Condition 39

"Brahmin, many eons have elapsed and gone by. It is not easy to

count them and say they are so many eons, or so many hundreds of

eons, or so many thousands of eons, or so many hundreds of thou-

sands of eons."

"But is it possible to give a simile, Master Gotama?"

"It is possible, brahmin," the Blessed One said. "Imagine, brahmin,

the grains of sand between the point where the river Ganges originates

and the point where it enters the great ocean: it is not easy to count

these and say there are so many grains of sand, or so many hundreds

of grains, or so many thousands of grains, or so many hundreds of

thousands of grains. Brahmin, the eons that have elapsed and gone by

are even more numerous than that. It is not easy to count them and

say that they are so many eons, or so many hundreds of eons, or so

many thousands of eons, or so many hundreds of thousands of eons.

For what reason? Because, brahmin, this samsara is without discover-

able beginning.... It is enough to be liberated from them."

(SN 15:8; II183-84)

(5) Dog on a Leash

"Monks, this samsara is without discoverable beginning. A first point

is not discerned of beings roaming and wandering on hindered by

ignorance and fettered by craving.

"There comes a time, monks, when the great ocean dries up and

evaporates and no longer exists, but still, I say, there is no making an

end of suffering for those beings roaming and wandering on hindered

by ignorance and fettered by craving.

"There comes a time, monks, when Sineru, the king of mountains,

burns up and perishes and no longer exists, but still, I say, there is no

making an end of suffering for those beings roaming and wandering

on hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving.

"There comes a time, monks, when the great earth burns up and per-

ishes and no longer exists, but still, I say, there is no making an end of

suffering for those beings roaming and wandering on hindered by

ignorance and fettered by craving.

"Suppose, monks, a dog tied up on a leash was bound to a strong

Post or pillar: it would just keep on running and revolving around that

same post or pillar. So too, the uninstructed worldling regards form as

40 In the Buddha's Words

self ... feeling as self ... perception as self ... volitional formations as

self ... consciousness as self.... He just keeps running and revolving

around form, around feeling, around perception, around volitional for-

mations, around consciousness. As he keeps on running and revolving

around them, he is not freed from form, not freed from feeling, not

freed from perception, not freed from volitional formations, not freed

from consciousness. He is not freed from birth, aging, and death; not

freed from sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair; not freed

from suffering, I say."

(SN 22:99; II149-50)

INTRODUCTION

The picture of the human condition that emerges from the Nikayas, as

sketched in the preceding chapter, is the background against which

the manifestation of the Buddha in the world acquires a heightened

and deepened significance. Unless we view the Buddha against this

multi-dimensional background, extending from the most personal

and individual exigencies of the present to the vast, impersonal

rhythms of cosmic time, any interpretation we may arrive at about his

role is bound to be incomplete. Far from capturing the viewpoint of

the compilers of the Nikayas, our interpretation will be influenced as

much by our own presuppositions as by theirs, perhaps even more

so. Depending on our biases and predispositions, we may choose to

regard the Buddha as a liberal ethical reformer of a degenerate Brah-

manism, as a great secular humanist, as a radical empiricist, as an exis-

tential psychologist, as the proponent of a sweeping agnosticism, or as

the precursor of any other intellectual fashion that meets our fancy.

The Buddha who stares back at us from the texts will be too much a

reflection of ourselves, too little an image of the Enlightened One.

Perhaps in interpreting a body of ancient religious literature we can

never fully avoid inserting ourselves and our own values into the sub-

ject we are interpreting. However, though we may never achieve per-

fect transparency, we can limit the impact of personal bias upon the

process of interpretation by giving the words of the texts due respect.

When we pay this act of homage to the Nikayas, when we take seri-

ously their own account of the background to the Buddha's manifes-

tation in the world, we will see that they ascribe to his mission nothing

short of a cosmic scope. Against the background of a universe with no

conceivable bounds in time, a universe within which living beings

enveloped in the darkness of ignorance wander along bound to the

suffering of old age, sickness, and death, the Buddha arrives as the

torchbearer of humankind" (ukkadharo manussanam) bringing the light

°f wisdom.

In the words of Text 11,1, his arising in the world is "the

^manifestation °f great vision, of great light, of great radiance." Having

44 In the Buddha's Words

discovered for himself the perfect peace of liberation, he kindles for us

the light of knowledge, which reveals both the truths that we must see

for ourselves and the path of practice that culminates in this liberating

vision.

According to Buddhist tradition, the Buddha Gotama is not merely

one unique individual who puts in an unprecedented appearance on

the stage of human history and then bows out forever. He is, rather, the

fulfillment of a primordial archetype, the most recent member of a cos-

mic "dynasty" of Buddhas constituted by numberless Perfectly Enlight-

ened Ones of the past and sustained by Perfectly Enlightened Ones

continuing indefinitely onward into the future. Early Buddhism, even

in the archaic root texts of the Nikayas, already recognizes a plurality of

Buddhas who all conform to certain fixed patterns of behavior, the

broad outlines of which are described in the opening sections of the

Mahapadana Sutta (Digha Nikaya 14, not represented in the present

anthology). The word "Tathagata," which the texts use as an epithet for

a Buddha, points to this fulfillment of a primordial archetype. The word

means both "the one who has come thus" (tatha agata), that is, who has

come into our midst in the same way that the Buddhas of the past have

come; and "the one who has gone thus" (tatha gata), that is, who has

gone to the ultimate peace, Nibbana, in the same way that the Buddhas

of the past have gone.

Though the Nikayas stipulate that in any given world system, at any

given time, only one Perfectly Enlightened Buddha can arise, the aris-

ing of Buddhas is intrinsic to the cosmic process. Like a meteor against

the blackness of the night sky, from time to time a Buddha will appear

against the backdrop of boundless space and time, lighting up the spir-

itual firmament of the world, shedding the brilliance of his wisdom

upon those capable of seeing the truths that he illuminates. The being

who is to become a Buddha is called, in Pali, a bodhisatta, a word better

known in the Sanskrit form, bodhisattva. According to common

Buddhist tradition, a bodhisatta is one who undertakes a long course of

spiritual development consciously motivated by the aspiration to attain

future Buddhahood.

Inspired and sustained by great compassion for

living beings mired in the suffering of birth and death, a bodhisatta ful-

fills, over many eons of cosmic time, the difficult course needed to fully

master the requisites for supreme enlightenment. When all these requi-

sites are complete, he attains Buddhahood in order to establish the

The Bringer of Light 45

Dhamma in the world. A Buddha discovers the long-lost path to liber-

ation, the "ancient path" traveled by the Buddhas of the past that cul-

minates in the boundless freedom of Nibbana. Having found the path

and traveled it to its end, he then teaches it in all its fullness to human-

ity so that many others can enter the way to final liberation.

This, however, does not exhaust the function of a Buddha. A Buddha

understands and teaches not only the path leading to the supreme state

of ultimate liberation, the perfect bliss of Nibbana, but also the paths

leading to the various types of wholesome mundane happiness to

which human beings aspire. A Buddha proclaims both a path of mun-

dane enhancement that enables sentient beings to plant wholesome

roots productive of happiness, peace, and security in the worldly

dimensions of their lives, and a path of world-transcendence to guide

sentient beings to Nibbana. His role is thus much wider than an exclu-

sive focus on the transcendent aspects of his teaching might suggest.

He is not merely a mentor of ascetics and contemplatives, not merely

a teacher of meditation techniques and philosophical insights, but a

guide to the Dhamma in its full range and depth: one who reveals, pro-

claims, and establishes all the principles integral to correct understand-

ing and wholesome conduct, whether mundane or transcendental.

Text 11,1 highlights this wide-ranging altruistic dimension of a

Buddha's career when it praises the Buddha as the one person who

arises in the world "for the welfare of the multitude, for the happiness

of the multitude, out of compassion for the world, for the good, wel-

fare, and happiness of devas and humans."

The Nikayas offer two perspectives on the Buddha as a person, and

to do justice to the texts it is important to hold these two perspectives

in balance, without letting one cancel out the other. A correct view of

the Buddha can only arise from the merging of these two perspectives,

just as the correct view of an object can arise only when the perspec-

tives presented by our two eyes are merged in the brain into a single

image. One perspective, the one highlighted most often in modernist

presentations of Buddhism, shows the Buddha as a human being who,

like other human beings, had to struggle with the common frailties of

human nature to arrive at the state of an Enlightened One. After his

enlightenment at the age of thirty-five, he walked among us for forty-

five years as a wise and compassionate human teacher, sharing his

realization with others and ensuring that his teachings would remain

46 In the Buddha's Words

in the world long after his death. This is the side of the Buddha's nature

that figures most prominently in the Nikayas. Since it corresponds

closely with contemporary agnostic attitudes toward the ideals of reli-

gious faith, it has an immediate appeal to those nurtured by modern

modes of thought.

The other aspect of the Buddha's person is likely to seem strange to

us, but it looms large in Buddhist tradition and serves as the bedrock

for popular Buddhist devotion. Though secondary in the Nikayas, it

occasionally surfaces so conspicuously that it cannot be ignored,

despite the efforts of Buddhist modernists to downplay its significance

or rationalize its intrusions. From this perspective, the Buddha is seen

as one who had already made preparations for his supreme attainment

over countless past lives and was destined from birth to fulfill the mis-

sion of a world teacher. Text 11,2 is an example of how the Buddha is

viewed from this perspective. Here, it is said, the future Buddha

descends fully conscious from the Tusita heaven into his mother's

womb; his conception and birth are accompanied by wonders; deities

worship the newborn infant; and as soon as he is born he walks seven

steps and announces his future destiny. Obviously, for the compilers of

such a sutta as this, the Buddha was already destined to attain Buddha-

hood even prior to his conception and thus his struggle for enlighten-

ment was a battle whose outcome was already predetermined. The

final paragraph of the sutta, however, ironically hearkens back to the

realistic picture of the Buddha. What the Buddha himself considers to

be truly wondrous are not the miracles accompanying his conception

and birth, but his mindfulness and clear comprehension in the midst

of feelings, thoughts, and perceptions.

The three texts in section 3 are biographical accounts consistent with

this naturalistic point of view. They offer us a portrait of the Buddha

stark in its realism, bare in its naturalism, striking in its ability to con-

vey deep psychological insights with minimal descriptive technique.

In Text 11,3(1) we read about his renunciation, his training under two

famous meditation teachers, his disillusionment with their teachings,

his solitary struggle, and his triumphant realization of the Deathless.

Text 11,3(2) fills in the gaps of the above narrative with a detailed

account of the bodhisatta's practice of self-mortification, strangely

missing from the previous discourse. This text also gives us the clas-

sic description of the enlightenment experience as involving the

The Bringer of Light 47

attainment of the four jhanas, states of deep meditation, followed by

the three vijjas or higher types of knowledge: the knowledge of the

recollection of past lives, the knowledge of the passing away and

rebirth of beings, and the knowledge of the destruction of the taints.

While this text may convey the impression that the last knowledge

broke upon the Buddha's mind as a sudden and spontaneous intu-

ition, Text 11,3(3) corrects this impression with an account of the

Bodhisatta on the eve of his enlightenment reflecting deeply upon the

suffering of old age and death. He then methodically traces this suf-

fering back to its conditions by a process that involves, at each step,

"careful attention" (yoniso manasikara) leading to "a breakthrough by

wisdom" (pannaya abhisamaya). This process of investigation culmi-

nates in the discovery of dependent origination, which thereby

becomes the philosophical cornerstone of his teaching.

It is important to emphasize that, as presented here and elsewhere in

the Nikayas (see below, pp. 353-59), dependent origination does not

signify a joyous celebration of the interconnectedness of all things but

a precise articulation of the conditional pattern in dependence upon

which suffering arises and ceases. In the same text, the Buddha

declares that he discovered the path to enlightenment only when he

found the way to bring dependent origination to an end. It was thus

the realization of the cessation of dependent origination, and not merely

the discovery of its origination aspect, that precipitated the Buddha's

enlightenment. The simile of the ancient city, introduced later in the

discourse, illustrates the point that the Buddha's enlightenment was

not a unique event but the rediscovery of the same "ancient path" that

had been followed by the Buddhas of the past.

Text 11,4 resumes the narrative of Text 11,3(1), which I had divided by

splicing in the two alternative versions of the bodhisatta's quest for

the path to enlightenment. We now rejoin the Buddha immediately

after his enlightenment as he ponders the weighty question whether to

attempt to share his realization with the world. Just at this point, in

the midst of a text that has so far appeared so convincingly naturalis-

tic, a deity named Brahma Sahampati descends from the heavens to

plead with the Buddha to wander forth and teach the Dhamma for the

benefit of those "with little dust in their eyes." Should this scene be

interpreted literally or as a symbolic enactment of an internal drama

taking place in the Buddha's mind? It is hard to give a definitive

48 In the Buddha's Words

answer to this question; perhaps the scene could be understood as

occurring at both levels at once. In any event, Brahma's appearance at

this point marks a shift from the realism that colors the earlier part of

the sutta back toward the mythical-symbolic mode. The transition

again underscores the cosmic significance of the Buddha's enlighten-

ment and his future mission as a teacher.

Brahma's appeal eventually prevails and the Buddha agrees to teach.

He chooses as the first recipients of his teaching the five ascetics who

had attended on him during his years of ascetic practices. The narra-

tive culminates in a brief statement that the Buddha instructed them in

such a way that they all attained the deathless Nibbana for themselves.

However, it gives no indication of the specific teaching that the Buddha

imparted to them when he first met them after his enlightenment. That

teaching is the First Discourse itself, known as "The Setting in Motion

of the Wheel of the Dhamma."

This sutta is included here as Text 11,5. When the sutta opens, the

Buddha announces to the five ascetics that he has discovered "the mid-

dle way," which he identifies with the Noble Eightfold Path. In the

light of the preceding biographical account, we can understand why

the Buddha should begin his discourse in this way. The five ascetics

had initially refused to acknowledge the Buddha's claim to enlighten-

ment and spurned him as one who had betrayed the higher calling to

revert to a life of luxury. Thus he first had to assure them that, far from

reverting to a life of self-indulgence, he had discovered a new approach

to the timeless quest for enlightenment. This new approach, he told

them, remains faithful to the renunciation of sensual pleasures yet

eschews tormenting the body as pointless and unproductive. He then

explained to them the true path to liberation, the Noble Eightfold Path,

which avoids the two extremes and thereby gives rise to the light of

wisdom and culminates in the destruction of all bondage, Nibbana.

Once he has cleared up their misunderstanding, the Buddha then

proclaims the truths he had realized on the night of his enlightenment.

These are the Four Noble Truths. Not only does he enunciate each truth

and briefly define its meaning, but he describes each truth from three

perspectives. These constitute the three "turnings of the wheel of the

Dhamma" referred to later in the discourse. With respect to each truth,

the first turning is the wisdom that illuminates the particular nature of

that noble truth. The second turning is the understanding that each

The Bringer of Light 49

noble truth imposes a particular task to be accomplished. Thus the first

noble truth, the truth of suffering, is to be fully understood; the second

truth, the truth of suffering's origin or craving, is to be abandoned; the

third truth, the truth of the cessation of suffering, is to be realized; and

the fourth truth, the truth of the path, is to be developed. The third turn-

ing is the understanding that the four functions regarding the Four

Noble Truths have been completed: the truth of suffering has been fully

understood; craving has been abandoned; the cessation of suffering has

been realized; and the path has been fully developed. It was only when

he understood the Four Noble Truths in these three turnings and

twelve modes, he says, that he could claim that he had attained unsur-

passed perfect enlightenment.

The Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta illustrates once again the

blending of the two stylistic modes I referred to earlier. The discourse

proceeds almost entirely in the realistic-naturalistic mode until we

approach the end. When the Buddha completes his sermon, the cosmic

significance of the event is illuminated by a passage showing how the

deities in each successive celestial realm applaud the discourse and

shout the good news up to the deities in the next higher realm. At the

same time, the entire world system quakes and shakes, and a great

light surpassing the radiance of the gods appears in the world. Then,

at the very end, we return from this glorious scene back to the prosaic

human realm, to behold the Buddha briefly congratulating the ascetic

Kondanha for gaining "the dust-free, stainless vision of the Dhamma."

In one split-second, the Lamp of the Doctrine has passed from master

to disciple, to begin its journey throughout India and across the world.

II. THE BRINGER OF LIGHT

1. ONE PERSON

"Monks, there is one person who arises in the world for the welfare of

the multitude, for the happiness of the multitude, out of compassion

for the world, for the good, welfare, and happiness of devas and

humans. Who is that one person? It is the Tathagata, the Arahant, the

Perfectly Enlightened One. This is that one person.

"Monks, there is one person arising in the world who is unique,

without a peer, without counterpart, incomparable, unequalled, match-

less, unrivalled, the best of humans. Who is that one person? It is the

Tathagata, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One. This is that one

person.

"Monks, the manifestation of one person is the manifestation of great

vision, of great light, of great radiance; it is the manifestation of the six

things unsurpassed; the realization of the four analytical knowledges;

the penetration of the various elements, of the diversity of elements; it

is the realization of the fruit of knowledge and liberation; the realiza-

tion of the fruits of stream-entry, once-returning, nonreturning, and

arahantship.

Who is that one person? It is the Tathagata, the Arahant,

the Perfectly Enlightened One. This is that one person."

(ANl:xiii,l,5,6;I22-23)

2. THE BUDDHA'S CONCEPTION AND BIRTH

1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living at

Savatthi in Jeta's Grove, Anathapindika's Park.

2. Now a number of monks were sitting in the assembly hall, where

they had met together on returning from their almsround, after their

meal, when this discussion arose among them: "It is wonderful,

friends, it is marvelous, how mighty and powerful is the Tathagata!

For he is able to know about the Buddhas of the past—who attained

TheBringer of Light 51

final Nibbana, cut [the tangle of] proliferation, broke the cycle, ended

the round, and surmounted all suffering—that for those Blessed Ones

their birth was thus, their names were thus, their clans were thus, their

moral discipline was thus, their qualities [of concentration] were thus,

their wisdom was thus, their meditative dwellings were thus, their lib-

eration was thus."

When this was said, the Venerable Ananda told the monks: "Friends,

Tathagatas are wonderful and have wonderful qualities. Tathagatas

are marvelous and have marvelous qualities."

However, their discussion was interrupted; for the Blessed One rose

from meditation when it was evening, went to the assembly hall, and

sat down on a seat made ready. Then he addressed the monks thus:

"Monks, for what discussion are you sitting together here now? And

what was your discussion that was interrupted?"

"Here, venerable sir, we were sitting in the assembly hall, where we

had met together on returning from our almsround, after our meal,

when this discussion arose among us: Tt is wonderful, friends, it is

marvelous ... their liberation was thus.' When this was said, venerable

sir, the Venerable Ananda said to us: 'Friends, Tathagatas are wonder-

ful and have wonderful qualities. Tathagatas are marvelous and have

marvelous qualities.' This was our discussion, venerable sir, that was

interrupted when the Blessed One arrived."

Then the Blessed One addressed the Venerable Ananda: "That being

so, Ananda, explain more fully the Tathagata's wonderful and mar-

velous qualities."

3. "I heard and learned this, venerable sir, from the Blessed One's

own lips: 'Mindful and clearly comprehending, Ananda, the Bodhi-

satta appeared in the Tusita heaven.'

That mindful and clearly compre-

hending the Bodhisatta appeared in the Tusita heaven—this I

remember as a wonderful and marvelous quality of the Blessed One.

4. "I heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: 'Mind-

ful and clearly comprehending the Bodhisatta remained in the Tusita

heaven.' This too I remember as a wonderful and marvelous quality of

the Blessed One.

5- "I heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: 'For the

hole of his lifespan the Bodhisatta remained in the Tusita heaven.'

TVi*

s to

° I remember as a wonderful and marvelous quality of the

Blessed One.

52 In the Buddha's Words

6. "I heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: 'Mind-

ful and clearly comprehending the Bodhisatta passed away from the

Tusita heaven and descended into his mother's womb.' This too I

remember as a wonderful and marvelous quality of the Blessed One.

7. "I heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: 'When

the Bodhisatta passed away from the Tusita heaven and descended

into his mother's womb, an immeasurable great radiance surpassing

the divine majesty of the devas appeared in the world with its devas,

Mara, and Brahma, in this population with its ascetics and brahmins,

with its devas and human beings. And even in those abysmal world

intervals of vacancy, gloom, and utter darkness, where the moon and

the sun, mighty and powerful as they are, cannot make their light

prevail, there too an immeasurable great radiance surpassing the

divine majesty of the devas appeared.

And the beings reborn there

perceived each other by that light: "So indeed, there are also other

beings reborn here." And this ten-thousand-fold world system shook,

quaked, and trembled, and again an immeasurable great radiance

surpassing the divine majesty of the devas appeared in the world.'

This too I remember as a wonderful and marvelous quality of the

Blessed One.

8. "I heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: 'When

the Bodhisatta had descended into his mother's womb, four young

devas came to guard him at the four quarters so that no humans or

nonhumans or anyone at all could harm the Bodhisatta or his mother.'

This too I remember as a wonderful and marvelous quality of the

Blessed One.

9. "I heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: 'When

the Bodhisatta had descended into his mother's womb, she became

intrinsically virtuous, refraining from killing living beings, from taking

what is not given, from sexual misconduct, from false speech, and from

wines, liquors, and intoxicants, the basis of negligence.' This too I

remember as a wonderful and marvelous quality of the Blessed One....

14. "I heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: 'Other

women give birth after carrying the child in the womb for nine or ten

months, but not so the Bodhisatta's mother. The Bodhisatta's mother

gave birth to him after carrying him in her womb for exactly ten

months.' This too I remember as a wonderful and marvelous quality of

the Blessed One.

The Bringer of Light 53

15. "I heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips:

'Other women give birth seated or lying down, but not so the Bodhi-

satta's mother. The Bodhisatta's mother gave birth to him standing

up.' This too I remember as a wonderful and marvelous quality of the

Blessed One.

16. "I heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: 'When

the Bodhisatta came forth from his mother's womb, first devas

received him, then human beings.' This too I remember as a wonder-

ful and marvelous quality of the Blessed One.

17. "I heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: 'When

the Bodhisatta came forth from his mother's womb, he did not touch

the earth. The four young devas received him and set him before his

mother saying: "Rejoice, O queen, a son of great power has been born

to you.'" This too I remember as a wonderful and marvelous quality of

the Blessed One.

18. "I heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: 'When

the Bodhisatta came forth from his mother's womb, he came forth

unsullied, unsmeared by water, humors, blood, or any kind of impu-

rity, clean and unsullied. Suppose there were a gem placed on fine

cloth, then the gem would not smear the cloth or the cloth the gem.

Why is that? Because of the purity of both. So too when the Bodhisatta

came forth ... he came forth clean and unsullied.' This too I remember

as a wonderful and marvelous quality of the Blessed One.

19. "I heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: 'When

the Bodhisatta came forth from his mother's womb, two jets of water

appeared to pour from the sky, one cool and one warm, for bathing

the Bodhisatta and his mother.' This too I remember as a wonderful

and marvelous quality of the Blessed One.

20. "I heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: 'As

soon as the Bodhisatta was born, he stood firmly with his feet on the

ground; then he took seven steps facing north, and with a white para-

sol held over him, he surveyed each quarter and uttered the words of

the leader of the herd: "I am the highest in the world; I am the best in

the world; I am the foremost in the world. This is my last birth; now

there is no renewed existence for me.'"

This too I remember as a won-

derful and marvelous quality of the Blessed One.

21. "I

heard and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: 'When

^e Bodhisatta came forth from his mother's womb, an immeasurable

54 In the Buddha's Words

great radiance surpassing the divine majesty of the devas appeared in

the world with its devas, Mara, and Brahma, in this population with its

ascetics and brahmins, with its devas and human beings. And even in

those abysmal world intervals of vacancy, gloom, and utter darkness,

where the moon and the sun, mighty and powerful as they are, cannot

make their light prevail—there too an immeasurable great radiance

surpassing the divine majesty of the devas appeared in the world. And

the beings reborn there perceived each other by that light: "So indeed,

there are also other beings reborn here." And this ten-thousand-fold

world system shook, quaked, and trembled, and there too an immeas-

urable great radiance surpassing the divine majesty of the devas

appeared in the world/ That when the Bodhisatta came forth from his

mother's womb, an immeasurable great radiance surpassing the divine

majesty of the devas appeared in the world ... this too I remember as

a wonderful and marvelous quality of the Blessed One."

22. "That being so, Ananda, remember this too as a wonderful and

marvelous quality of the Tathagata: Here, Ananda, for the Tathagata

feelings are known as they arise, as they are present, as they disap-

pear; perceptions are known as they arise, as they are present, as they

disappear; thoughts are known as they arise, as they are present, as

they disappear.

Remember this too, Ananda, as a wonderful and mar-

velous quality of the Tathagata."

23. "Venerable sir, since for the Blessed One feelings are known as

they arise, as they are present, as they disappear; perceptions are known

as they arise, as they are present, as they disappear; thoughts are known

as they arise, as they are present, as they disappear—this too I remem-

ber as a wonderful and marvelous quality of the Blessed One."

That is what the Venerable Ananda said. The Teacher approved. The

monks were satisfied and delighted in the Venerable Ananda's words.

(MN 123: Acchariya-abbhuta Sutta, abridged; III 118-20; 122-24)

3. THE QUEST FOR ENLIGHTENMENT

(1) Seeking the Supreme State of Sublime Peace

5. "Monks, there are these two kinds of search: the noble search and

the ignoble search. And what is the ignoble search? Here someone

being himself subject to birth seeks what is also subject to birth; being

The Bringer of Light 55

himself subject to aging, he seeks what is also subject to aging; being

himself subject to sickness, he seeks what is also subject to sickness;

being himself subject to death, he seeks what is also subject to death;

being himself subject to sorrow, he seeks what is also subject to sorrow;

being himself subject to defilement, he seeks what is also subject to

defilement.

6-11. "And what may be said to be subject to birth, aging, sickness,

and death; to sorrow and defilement? Wife and children, men and

women slaves, goats and sheep, fowl and pigs, elephants, cattle,

horses, and mares, gold and silver: these acquisitions are subject to

birth, aging, sickness, and death; to sorrow and defilement; and one

who is tied to these things, infatuated with them, and utterly absorbed

in them, being himself subject to birth ... to sorrow and defilement,

seeks what it also subject to birth ... to sorrow and defilement.

12. "And what is the noble search? Here someone being himself sub-

ject to birth, having understood the danger in what is subject to birth,

seeks the unborn supreme security from bondage, Nibbana; being him-

self subject to aging, having understood the danger in what is subject

to aging, he seeks the unaging supreme security from bondage,

Nibbana; being himself subject to sickness, having understood the dan-

ger in what is subject to sickness, he seeks the unailing supreme secu-

rity from bondage, Nibbana; being himself subject to death, having

understood the danger in what is subject to death, he seeks the death-

less supreme security from bondage, Nibbana; being himself subject to

sorrow, having understood the danger in what is subject to sorrow, he

seeks the sorrowless supreme security from bondage, Nibbana; being

himself subject to defilement, having understood the danger in what

is subject to defilement, he seeks the undefiled supreme security from

bondage, Nibbana. This is the noble search.

13. "Monks, before my enlightenment, while I was still only an unen-

lightened bodhisatta, I too, being myself subject to birth, sought what

was also subject to birth; being myself subject to aging, sickness, death,

sorrow, and defilement, I sought what was also subject to aging, sick-

ness, death, sorrow, and defilement. Then I considered thus: 'Why,

being myself subject to birth, do I seek what is also subject to birth?

Why, being myself subject to aging, sickness, death, sorrow, and defile-

ment, do I seek what is also subject to aging, sickness, death, sorrow,

and defilement? Suppose that, being myself subject to birth, having

56 In the Buddha's Words

understood the danger in what is subject to birth, I seek the unborn

supreme security from bondage, Nibbana. Suppose that, being myself

subject to aging, sickness, death, sorrow, and defilement, having

understood the danger in what is subject to aging, sickness, death, sor-

row, and defilement, I seek the unaging, unailing, deathless, sorrow-

less, and undefiled supreme security from bondage, Nibbana.'

14. "Later, while still young, a black-haired young man endowed

with the blessing of youth, in the prime of life, though my mother and

father wished otherwise and wept with tearful faces, I shaved off my

hair and beard, put on the ochre robe, and went forth from the home

life into homelessness.

15. "Having gone forth, monks, in search of what is wholesome,

seeking the supreme state of sublime peace, I went to Alara Kalama

and said to him: 'Friend Kalama, I want to lead the spiritual life in this

Dhamma and Discipline.' Alara Kalama replied: 'The venerable one

may stay here. This Dhamma is such that a wise man can soon enter

upon and dwell in it, realizing for himself through direct knowledge

his own teacher's doctrine.' I soon quickly learned that Dhamma. As

far as mere lip-reciting and rehearsal of his teaching went, I could

speak with knowledge and assurance, and I claimed, T know and

see'—and there were others who did likewise.

"I considered: 'It is not through mere faith alone that Alara Kalama

declares: "By realizing it for myself with direct knowledge, I enter

upon and dwell in this Dhamma." Certainly Alara Kalama dwells

knowing and seeing this Dhamma.' Then I went to Alara Kalama and

asked him: 'Friend Kalama, in what way do you declare that by real-

izing it for yourself with direct knowledge you enter upon and dwell

in this Dhamma?' In reply he declared the base of nothingness.

"I considered: 'Not only Alara Kalama has faith, energy, mindful-

ness, concentration, and wisdom. I too have faith, energy, mindfulness,

concentration, and wisdom. Suppose I endeavor to realize the

Dhamma that Alara Kalama declares he enters upon and dwells in by

realizing it for himself with direct knowledge?'

"I soon quickly entered upon and dwelled in that Dhamma by real-

izing it for myself with direct knowledge. Then I went to Alara Kalama

and asked him: 'Friend Kalama, is it in this way that you declare that

you enter upon and dwell in this Dhamma by realizing it for yourself

with direct knowledge?'—'That is the way, friend.'—'It is in this way,

The Bringer of Light 57

friend, that I also enter upon and dwell in this Dhamma by realizing it

for myself with direct knowledge.'—'It is a gain for us, friend, it is a

great gain for us that we have such a venerable one for our fellow

monk. So the Dhamma that I declare I enter upon and dwell in by real-

izing it for myself with direct knowledge is the Dhamma that you enter

upon and dwell in by realizing it for yourself with direct knowledge.

And the Dhamma that you enter upon and dwell in by realizing it for

yourself with direct knowledge is the Dhamma that I declare I enter

upon and dwell in by realizing it for myself with direct knowledge. So

you know the Dhamma that I know and I know the Dhamma that you

know. As I am, so are you; as you are, so am I. Come, friend, let us now

lead this community together.'

"Thus Alara Kalama, my teacher, placed me, his pupil, on an equal

footing with himself and awarded me the highest honor. But it

occurred to me: 'This Dhamma does not lead to disenchantment, to

dispassion, to cessation, to peace, to direct knowledge, to enlighten-

ment, to Nibbana, but only to rebirth in the base of nothingness.'

Not

being satisfied with that Dhamma, disappointed with it, I left.

16. "Still in search, monks, of what is wholesome, seeking the

supreme state of sublime peace, I went to Uddaka Ramaputta and said

to him: 'Friend, I want to lead the spiritual life in this Dhamma and

Discipline.' Uddaka Ramaputta replied: 'The venerable one may stay

here. This Dhamma is such that a wise man can soon enter upon and

dwell in it, himself realizing through direct knowledge his own

teacher's doctrine.' I soon quickly learned that Dhamma. As far as

mere lip-reciting and rehearsal of his teaching went, I could speak with

knowledge and assurance, and I claimed, T know and see'—and there

were others who did likewise.

"I considered: 'It was not through mere faith alone that Rama

declared: "By realizing it for myself with direct knowledge, I enter

upon and dwell in this Dhamma." Certainly Rama dwelled knowing

and seeing this Dhamma.' Then I went to Uddaka Ramaputta and

asked him: 'Friend, in what way did Rama declare that by realizing it

for himself with direct knowledge he entered upon and dwelled in this

Dhamma?' In reply Uddaka Ramaputta declared the base of neither-

perception-nor-nonperception.

"I considered: 'Not only Rama had faith, energy, mindfulness, con-

centration, and wisdom. I too have faith, energy, mindfulness,

58 In the Buddha's Words

concentration, and wisdom. Suppose I endeavor to realize the

Dhamma that Rama declared he entered upon and dwelled in by real-

izing it for himself with direct knowledge.'

"I soon quickly entered upon and dwelled in that Dhamma by real-

izing it for myself with direct knowledge. Then I went to Uddaka

Ramaputta and asked him: 'Friend, was it in this way that Rama

declared that he entered upon and dwelled in this Dhamma by realiz-

ing it for himself with direct knowledge?'—'That is the way, friend.'—

'It is in this way, friend, that I also enter upon and dwell in this

Dhamma by realizing it for myself with direct knowledge.'—'It is a

gain for us, friend, it is a great gain for us that we have such a venera-

ble one for our fellow monk. So the Dhamma that Rama declared he

entered upon and dwelled in by realizing it for himself with direct

knowledge is the Dhamma that you enter upon and dwell in by real-

izing it for yourself with direct knowledge. And the Dhamma that you

enter upon and dwell in by realizing it for yourself with direct knowl-

edge is the Dhamma that Rama declared he entered upon and dwelled

in by realizing it for himself with direct knowledge. So you know the

Dhamma that Rama knew and Rama knew the Dhamma that you

know. As Rama was, so are you; as you are, so was Rama. Come,

friend, now lead this community.'

"Thus Uddaka Ramaputta, my fellow monk, placed me in the posi-

tion of a teacher and accorded me the highest honor. But it occurred

to me: 'This Dhamma does not lead to disenchantment, to dispassion,

to cessation, to peace, to direct knowledge, to enlightenment, to

Nibbana, but only to rebirth in the base of neither-perception-nor-

nonperception.' Not being satisfied with that Dhamma, disappointed

with it, I left.

17. "Still in search, monks, of what is wholesome, seeking the

supreme state of sublime peace, I wandered by stages through the

Magadhan country until eventually I arrived at Uruvela near

Senanigama. There I saw an agreeable piece of ground, a delightful

grove with a clear-flowing river with pleasant, smooth banks and

nearby a village for alms resort. I considered: 'This is an agreeable piece

of ground, this is a delightful grove with a clear-flowing river with

pleasant, smooth banks and nearby a village for alms resort. This will

serve for the striving of a clansman intent on striving.' And I sat down

there thinking: 'This will serve for striving.'

The Bringer of Light 59

18. "Then, monks, being myself subject to birth, having understood

the danger in what is subject to birth, seeking the unborn supreme

security from bondage, Nibbana, I attained the unborn supreme secu-

rity from bondage, Nibbana; being myself subject to aging, having

understood the danger in what is subject to aging, seeking the unag-

ing supreme security from bondage, Nibbana, I attained the unaging

supreme security from bondage, Nibbana; being myself subject to sick-

ness, having understood the danger in what is subject to sickness, seek-

ing the unailing supreme security from bondage, Nibbana, I attained

the unailing supreme security from bondage, Nibbana; being myself

subject to death, having understood the danger in what is subject to

death, seeking the deathless supreme security from bondage, Nibbana,

I attained the deathless supreme security from bondage, Nibbana;

being myself subject to sorrow, having understood the danger in what

is subject to sorrow, seeking the sorrowless supreme security from

bondage, Nibbana, I attained the sorrowless supreme security from

bondage, Nibbana; being myself subject to defilement, having under-

stood the danger in what is subject to defilement, seeking the undefiled

supreme security from bondage, Nibbana, I attained the undefiled

supreme security from bondage, Nibbana. The knowledge and vision

arose in me: 'My liberation is unshakable. This is my last birth. Now

there is no more renewed existence.'"

(from MN 26: Ariyapariyesana Sutta; 1160-67)

(2) The Realization of the Three True Knowledges

11. [Saccaka asked the Blessed One:]

"Has there never arisen in Mas-

ter Gotama a feeling so pleasant that it could invade his mind and

remain? Has there never arisen in Master Gotama a feeling so painful

that it could invade his mind and remain?"

12. "Why not, Aggivessana? Here, Aggivessana, before my enlighten-

ment, while I was still only an unenlightened bodhisatta, I thought:

'Household life is crowded and dusty; life gone forth is wide open.

It is not easy, while living in a home, to lead the holy life utterly per-

fect and pure as a polished shell. Suppose I shave off my hair and

beard, put on the ochre robe, and go forth from the home life into

homelessness.'

to-16. "Later, while still young, a black-haired young man endowed with

60 In the Buddha's Words

the blessing of youth, in the prime of life ... [as in Text 11,3(1) §§14-17]

... And I sat down there thinking: This will serve for striving.'

17. "Now these three similes occurred to me spontaneously, never

heard before. Suppose there were a wet sappy piece of wood lying in

water, and a man came with an upper fire-stick, thinking: T shall light

a fire, I shall produce heat.' What do you think, Aggivessana? Could

the man light a fire and produce heat by taking the upper fire-stick

and rubbing it against the wet sappy piece of wood lying in the

water?"

"No, Master Gotama. Why not? Because it is a wet sappy piece of

wood, and it is lying in water. Eventually the man would reap only

weariness and disappointment."

"So too, Aggivessana, as to those ascetics and brahmins who still do

not live bodily withdrawn from sensual pleasures, and whose sensual

desire, affection, infatuation, thirst, and fever for sensual pleasures has

not been fully abandoned and suppressed internally, even if those

good ascetics and brahmins feel painful, racking, piercing feelings due

to exertion, they are incapable of knowledge and vision and supreme

enlightenment; and even if those good ascetics and brahmins do not

feel painful, racking, piercing feelings due to exertion, they are inca-

pable of knowledge and vision and supreme enlightenment. This was

the first simile that occurred to me spontaneously, never heard before.

18. "Again, Aggivessana, a second simile occurred to me sponta-

neously, never heard before. Suppose there were a wet sappy piece of

wood lying on dry land far from water, and a man came with an upper

fire-stick, thinking: T shall light a fire, I shall produce heat.' What do

you think, Aggivessana? Could the man light a fire and produce heat

by taking the upper fire-stick and rubbing it against the wet sappy

piece of wood lying on dry land far from water?"

"No, Master Gotama. Why not? Because it is a wet sappy piece of

wood, even though it is lying on dry land far from water. Eventually

the man would reap only weariness and disappointment."

"So too, Aggivessana, as to those ascetics and brahmins who live

bodily withdrawn from sensual pleasures, but whose sensual desire,

affection, infatuation, thirst, and fever for sensual pleasures has not

been fully abandoned and suppressed internally, even if those good

ascetics and brahmins feel painful, racking, piercing feelings due to

exertion, they are incapable of knowledge and vision and supreme

The Bringer of Light 61

enlightenment; and even if those good ascetics and brahmins do not

feel painful, racking, piercing feelings due to exertion, they are inca-

pable of knowledge and vision and supreme enlightenment. This was

the second simile that occurred to me spontaneously, never heard

before.

19. "Again, Aggivessana, a third simile occurred to me sponta-

neously, never heard before. Suppose there were a dry sapless piece of

wood lying on dry land far from water, and a man came with an upper

fire-stick, thinking: T shall light a fire, I shall produce heat.' What do

you think, Aggivessana? Could the man light a fire and produce heat

by rubbing it against the dry sapless piece of wood lying on dry land

far from water?"

"Yes, Master Gotama. Why so? Because it is a dry sapless piece of

wood, and it is lying on dry land far from water."

"So too, Aggivessana, as to those ascetics and brahmins who live

bodily withdrawn from sensual pleasures, and whose sensual desire,

affection, infatuation, thirst, and fever for sensual pleasures has been

fully abandoned and suppressed internally, even if those good ascetics

and brahmins feel painful, racking, piercing feelings due to exertion,

they are capable of knowledge and vision and supreme enlightenment;

and even if those good ascetics and brahmins do not feel painful, rack-

ing, piercing feelings due to exertion, they are capable of knowledge

and vision and supreme enlightenment.

This was the third simile that

occurred to me spontaneously, never heard before. These are the three

similes that occurred to me spontaneously, never heard before.

20. "I thought: 'Suppose, with my teeth clenched and my tongue

pressed against the roof of my mouth, I beat down, constrain, and

crush mind with mind.' So, with my teeth clenched and my tongue

pressed against the roof of my mouth, I beat down, constrained, and

crushed mind with mind. While I did so, sweat ran from my armpits.

Just as a strong man might seize a weaker man by the head or shoul-

ders and beat him down, constrain him, and crush him, so too, with my

teeth clenched and my tongue pressed against the roof of my mouth,

beat down, constrained, and crushed mind with mind, and sweat ran

from my armpits. But although tireless energy was aroused in me and

unremitting mindfulness was established, my body was overwrought

nd strained because I was exhausted by the painful striving. But such

Painful feeling that arose in me did not invade my mind and remain.

62 In the Buddha's Words

21. "I thought: 'Suppose I practice the breathless meditation.' So I

stopped the in-breaths and out-breaths through my mouth and nose.

While I did so, there was a loud sound of winds coming out from my

ear holes. Just as there is a loud sound when a smith's bellows are

blown, so too, while I stopped the in-breaths and out-breaths through

my nose and ears, there was a loud sound of winds coming out from

my ear holes. But although tireless energy was aroused in me and

unremitting mindfulness was established, my body was overwrought

and strained because I was exhausted by the painful striving. But such

painful feeling that arose in me did not invade my mind and remain.

22. "I thought: 'Suppose I practice further the breathless meditation.'

So I stopped the in-breaths and out-breaths through my mouth, nose,

and ears. While I did so, violent winds cut through my head. Just as if

a strong man were pressing against my head with the tip of a sharp

sword, so too, while I stopped the in-breaths and out-breaths through

my mouth, nose, and ears, violent winds cut through my head. But

although tireless energy was aroused in me and unremitting mindful-

ness was established, my body was overwrought and strained because

I was exhausted by the painful striving. But such painful feeling that

arose in me did not invade my mind and remain.

23. "I thought: 'Suppose I practice further the breathless meditation.'

So I stopped the in-breaths and out-breaths through my mouth, nose,

and ears. While I did so, there were violent pains in my head. Just as if

a strong man were tightening a tough leather strap around my head as

a headband, so too, while I stopped the in-breaths and out-breaths

through my mouth, nose, and ears, there were violent pains in my

head. But although tireless energy was aroused in me and unremitting

mindfulness was established, my body was overwrought and strained

because I was exhausted by the painful striving. But such painful feel-

ing that arose in me did not invade my mind and remain.

24. "I thought: 'Suppose I practice further the breathless meditation.'

So I stopped the in-breaths and out-breaths through my mouth, nose,

and ears. While I did so, violent winds carved up my belly. Just as if a

skilled butcher or his apprentice were to carve up an ox's belly with a

sharp butcher's knife, so too, while I stopped the in-breaths and out-

breaths through my mouth, nose, and ears, violent winds carved up

my belly. But although tireless energy was aroused in me and unremit-

ting mindfulness was established, my body was overwrought and

The Bringer of Light 63

strained because I was exhausted by the painful striving. But such

painful feeling that arose in me did not invade my mind and remain.

25. "I thought: 'Suppose I practice further the breathless meditation.'

So I stopped the in-breaths and out-breaths through my mouth, nose,

and ears. While I did so, there was a violent burning in my body. Just

as if two strong men were to seize a weaker man by both arms and

roast him over a pit of hot coals, so too, while I stopped the in-breaths

and out-breaths through my mouth, nose, and ears, there was a violent

burning in my body. But although tireless energy was aroused in me

and unremitting mindfulness was established, my body was over-

wrought and strained because I was exhausted by the painful striving.

But such painful feeling that arose in me did not invade my mind and

remain.

26. "Now when deities saw me, some said: 'The ascetic Gotama is

dead.' Other deities said: 'The ascetic Gotama is not dead, he is dying.'

And other deities said: 'The ascetic Gotama is neither dead nor dying;

he is an arahant, for such is the way arahants dwell.'

27. "I thought: 'Suppose I practice entirely cutting off food.' Then

deities came to me and said: 'Good sir, do not practice entirely cutting

off food. If you do so, we shall infuse heavenly food into the pores of

your skin and this will sustain you.' I considered: 'If I claim to be com-

pletely fasting while these deities infuse heavenly food into the pores

of my skin and this sustains me, then I shall be lying.' So I dismissed

those deities, saying: 'There is no need.'

28. "I thought: 'Suppose I take very little food, a handful each time,

whether of bean soup or lentil soup or vetch soup or pea soup.' So I

took very little food, a handful each time, whether of bean soup or

lentil soup or vetch soup or pea soup. While I did so, my body reached

a state of extreme emaciation. Because of eating so little my limbs

became like the jointed segments of vine stems or bamboo stems.

Because of eating so little my backside became like a camel's hoof.

Because of eating so little the projections on my spine stood forth like

corded beads. Because of eating so little my ribs jutted out as gaunt as

the crazy rafters of an old roofless barn. Because of eating so little the

gleam of my eyes sank far down in their sockets, looking like the gleam

of water that has sunk far down in a deep well. Because of eating so lit-

tle my scalp shriveled and withered as a green bitter gourd shrivels

and withers in the wind and sun. Because of eating so little my belly

64 In the Buddha's Words

skin adhered to my backbone; thus if I touched my belly skin I encoun-

tered my backbone and if I touched my backbone I encountered my

belly skin. Because of eating so little, if I defecated or urinated, I fell

over on my face there. Because of eating so little, if I tried to ease my

body by rubbing my limbs with my hands, the hair, rotted at its roots,

fell from my body as I rubbed.

29. "Now when people saw me, some said: The ascetic Gotama is

black.' Other people said: 'The ascetic Gotama is not black; he is

brown.' Other people said: 'The ascetic Gotama is neither black nor

brown; he is golden-skinned.' So much had the clear, bright color of my

skin deteriorated through eating so little.

30. "I thought: 'Whatever ascetics or brahmins in the past have expe-

rienced painful, racking, piercing feelings due to exertion, this is the

utmost; there is none beyond this. And whatever ascetics and brah-

mins in the future will experience painful, racking, piercing feelings

due to exertion, this is the utmost; there is none beyond this. And what-

ever ascetics and brahmins at present experience painful, racking,

piercing feelings due to exertion, this is the utmost; there is none

beyond this. But by this racking practice of austerities I have not

attained any superhuman distinction in knowledge and vision wor-

thy of the noble ones. Could there be another path to enlightenment?'

31. "I considered: T recall that when my father the Sakyan was occu-

pied, while I was sitting in the cool shade of a rose-apple tree, secluded

from sensual pleasures, secluded from unwholesome states, I entered

and dwelled in the first jhana, which is accompanied by thought and

examination, with rapture and happiness born of seclusion.

Could

this be the path to enlightenment?' Then, following on that memory,

came the realization: 'This is indeed the path to enlightenment.'

32. "I thought: 'Why am I afraid of that happiness that has nothing

to do with sensual pleasures and unwholesome states?' I thought: T am

not afraid of that happiness that has nothing to do with sensual pleas-

ures and unwholesome states.'

33. "I considered: 'It is not easy to attain that happiness with a body

so excessively emaciated. Suppose I ate some solid food—some boiled

rice and porridge.' And I ate some solid food—some boiled rice and

porridge. Now at that time five monks were waiting upon me, think-

ing: 'If our ascetic Gotama achieves some higher state, he will inform

us.' But when I ate the boiled rice and porridge, the five monks were

The Bringer of Light 65

disgusted and left me, thinking: 'The ascetic Gotama now lives luxu-

riously; he has given up his striving and reverted to luxury.'

34. "Now when I had eaten solid food and regained my strength,

then secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unwholesome

states, I entered and dwelled in the first jhana, which is accompanied

by thought and examination, with rapture and happiness born of

seclusion. But such pleasant feeling that arose in me did not invade

my mind and remain.

35. "With the subsiding of thought and examination, I entered and

dwelled in the second jhana, which has internal confidence and unifi-

cation of mind, is without thought and examination, and has rapture

and happiness born of concentration. But such pleasant feeling that

arose in me did not invade my mind and remain.

36. "With the fading away as well of rapture, I dwelled equanimous,

and mindful and clearly comprehending, I experienced happiness with

the body; I entered and dwelled in the third jhana of which the noble

ones declare: 'He is equanimous, mindful, one who dwells happily.'

But such pleasant feeling that arose in me did not invade my mind and

remain.

37. "With the abandoning of pleasure and pain, and with the previ-

ous passing away of joy and displeasure, I entered and dwelled in the

fourth jhana, which is neither painful nor pleasant and includes the

purification of mindfulness by equanimity. But such pleasant feeling

that arose in me did not invade my mind and remain.

38. "When my mind was thus concentrated, purified, bright,

unblemished, rid of imperfection, malleable, wieldy, steady, and

attained to imperturbability, I directed it to knowledge of the recollec-

tion of past lives. I recollected my manifold past lives, that is, one birth,

two births, three births, four births, five births, ten births, twenty births,

thirty births, forty births, fifty births, a hundred births, a thousand

births, a hundred thousand births, many eons of world-contraction,

many eons of world-expansion, many eons of world-contraction and

expansion: 'There I was so named, of such a clan, with such an appear-

ance, such was my nutriment, such my experience of pleasure and

pain, such my lifespan; and passing away from there, I was reborn

elsewhere; and there too I was so named, of such a clan, with such an

appearance, such was my nutriment, such my experience of pleasure

and pain, such my lifespan; and passing away from there, I was reborn

66 In the Buddha's Words

here.' Thus with their aspects and particulars I recollected my manifold

past lives.

39. "This was the first true knowledge attained by me in the first

watch of the night. Ignorance was banished and true knowledge arose,

darkness was banished and light arose, as happens in one who dwells

diligent, ardent, and resolute. But such pleasant feeling that arose in me

did not invade my mind and remain.

40. "When my mind was thus concentrated, purified, bright, unblem-

ished, rid of imperfection, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to

imperturbability, I directed it to knowledge of the passing away and

rebirth of beings. With the divine eye, which is purified and surpasses

the human, I saw beings passing away and being reborn, inferior and

superior, beautiful and ugly, fortunate and unfortunate, and I under-

stood how beings fare on according to their actions thus: 'These beings

who behaved wrongly by body, speech, and mind, who reviled the

noble ones, held wrong view, and undertook actions based on wrong

view, with the breakup of the body, after death, have been reborn in a

state of misery, in a bad destination, in the lower world, in hell; but

these beings who behaved well by body, speech, and mind, who did not

revile the noble ones, who held right view, and undertook action based

on right view, with the breakup of the body, after death, have been

reborn in a good destination, in a heavenly world.' Thus with the divine

eye, which is purified and surpasses the human, I saw beings passing

away and being reborn, inferior and superior, beautiful and ugly, fortu-

nate and unfortunate, and I understood how beings fare on according

to their actions.

41. "This was the second true knowledge attained by me in the mid-

dle watch of the night. Ignorance was banished and true knowledge

arose, darkness was banished and light arose, as happens in one who

dwells diligent, ardent, and resolute. But such pleasant feeling that

arose in me did not invade my mind and remain.

42. "When my mind was thus concentrated, purified, bright,

unblemished, rid of imperfection, malleable, wieldy, steady, and

attained to imperturbability, I directed it to knowledge of the destruc-

tion of the taints. I directly knew as it actually is: 'This is suffering.

This is the origin of suffering. This is the cessation of suffering. This

is the way leading to the cessation of suffering.' I directly knew as it

actually is: 'These are the taints. This is the origin of the taints. This is

The Bringer of Light 67

the cessation of the taints. This is the way leading to the cessation of the

taints.'

43. "When I knew and saw thus, my mind was liberated from the

taint of sensual desire, from the taint of existence, and from the taint of

ignorance. When it was liberated, there came the knowledge: 'It is lib-

erated.' I directly knew: 'Birth is destroyed, the spiritual life has been

lived, what had to be done has been done, there is no more coming

back to any state of being.'

44. "This was the third true knowledge attained by me in the last

watch of the night. Ignorance was banished and true knowledge arose,

darkness was banished and light arose, as happens in one who dwells

diligent, ardent, and resolute. But such pleasant feeling that arose in me

did not invade my mind and remain."

(from MN 36: Mahasaccaka Sutta; 1240-49)

(3) The Ancient City

"Monks, before my enlightenment, while I was still a bodhisatta, not

yet fully enlightened, it occurred to me: 'Alas, this world has fallen

into trouble, in that it is born, ages, and dies, it passes away and is

reborn, yet it does not understand the escape from this suffering

headed by aging-and-death. When now will an escape be discerned

from this suffering headed by aging-and-death?'

"Then, monks, it occurred to me: 'When what exists does aging-and-

death come to be? By what is aging-and-death conditioned?' Then,

monks, through careful attention, there took place in me a break-

through by wisdom: 'When there is birth, aging-and-death comes to

be; aging-and-death has birth as its condition.'

"Then, monks, it occurred to me: 'When what exists does birth

come to be?... existence?... clinging?... craving?... feeling?... con-

tact?.. . the six sense bases?... name-and-form? By what is name-and-

form conditioned?' Then, monks, through careful attention, there

took place in me a breakthrough by wisdom: 'When there is con-

sciousness, name-and-form comes to be; name-and-form has con-

sciousness as its condition.'

"Then, monks, it occurred to me: 'When what exists does conscious-

ness come to be? By what is consciousness conditioned?' Then, monks,

through careful attention, there took place in me a breakthrough by

68 In the Buddha's Words

wisdom: 'When there is name-and-form, consciousness comes to be;

consciousness has name-and-form as its condition.'

"Then, monks, it occurred to me: 'This consciousness turns back; it

does not go further than name-and-form. It is to this extent that one

may be born and age and die, pass away and be reborn, that is, when

there is consciousness with name-and-form as its condition, and name-

and-form with consciousness as its condition.

With name-and-form as

condition, the six sense bases; with the six sense bases as condition,

contact.... Such is the origin of this whole mass of suffering.'

"'Origination, origination'—thus, monks, in regard to things

unheard before there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom, penetra-

tion, and light.

"Then, monks, it occurred to me: 'When what does not exist does

aging-and-death not come to be? With the cessation of what does the

cessation of aging-and-death come about?' Then, monks, through care-

ful attention, there took place in me a breakthrough by wisdom: 'When

there is no birth, aging-and-death does not come to be; with the cessa-

tion of birth comes cessation of aging-and-death.'

"It occurred to me: 'When what does not exist does birth not come to

be?... existence?... clinging?... craving?... feeling?... contact?... the six

sense bases?... name-and-form? With the cessation of what does the

cessation of name-and-form come about?' Then, monks, through care-

ful attention, there took place in me a breakthrough by wisdom: 'When

there is no consciousness, name-and-form does not come to be; with

the cessation of consciousness comes cessation of name-and-form.'

"It occurred to me: 'When what does not exist does consciousness

not come to be? With the cessation of what does the cessation of con-

sciousness come about?' Then, monks, through careful attention, there

took place in me a breakthrough by wisdom: 'When there is no name-

and-form, consciousness does not come to be; with the cessation of

name-and-form comes cessation of consciousness.'

"Then, monks, it occurred to me: T have discovered this path to

enlightenment, that is, with the cessation of name-and-form comes ces-

sation of consciousness; with the cessation of consciousness comes ces-

sation of name-and-form; with the cessation of name-and-form,

cessation of the six sense bases; with the cessation of the six sense

bases, cessation of contact.... Such is the cessation of this whole mass

of suffering.'

The Bringer of Light 69

'"Cessation, cessation'—thus, monks, in regard to things unheard

before there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom, penetration,

and light.

"Suppose, monks, a man wandering through a forest would see an

ancient path, an ancient road traveled upon by people in the past. He

would follow it and would see an ancient city, an ancient capital that

had been inhabited by people in the past, with parks, groves, ponds,

and ramparts, a delightful place. Then the man would inform the king

or a royal minister: 'Sire, know that while wandering through the for-

est I saw an ancient path, an ancient road traveled upon by people in

the past. I followed it and saw an ancient city, an ancient capital that

had been inhabited by people in the past, with parks, groves, ponds,

and ramparts, a delightful place. Renovate that city, sire!' Then the king

or the royal minister would renovate the city, and some time later that

city would become successful and prosperous, well populated, filled

with people, attained to growth and expansion.

"So too, monks, I saw the ancient path, the ancient road traveled by

the Perfectly Enlightened Ones of the past. And what is that ancient

path, that ancient road? It is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right

view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right

effort, right mindfulness, right concentration. I followed that path and

by doing so I have directly known aging-and-death, its origin, its ces-

sation, and the way leading to its cessation. I have directly known birth

... existence ... clinging ... craving ... feeling ... contact... the six sense

bases ... name-and-form ... consciousness ... volitional formations,

their origin, their cessation, and the way leading to their cessation.

Having directly known them, I have explained them to the monks, the

nuns, the male lay followers, and the female lay followers. This spiri-

tual life, monks, has become successful and prosperous, extended, pop-

ular, widespread, well proclaimed among devas and humans."

(SN 12:65; II104-7)

4. THE DECISION TO TEACH

19. "I considered: 'This Dhamma that I have attained is profound,

hard to see and hard to understand, peaceful and sublime, unattain-

able by mere reasoning, subtle, to be experienced by the wise. But this

70 In the Buddha's Words

population delights in attachment, takes delight in attachment, rejoices

in attachment.

It is hard for such a population to see this truth,

namely, specific conditionality, dependent origination. And it is hard to

see this truth, namely, the stilling of all formations, the relinquishing of

all acquisitions, the destruction of craving, dispassion, cessation,

Nibbana.

If I were to teach the Dhamma, others would not under-

stand me, and that would be wearying and troublesome for me.' There-

upon there came to me spontaneously these stanzas never heard

before:

Enough with teaching the Dhamma

That even I found hard to reach;

For it will never be perceived

By those who live in lust and hate.

Those dyed in lust, wrapped in darkness

Will never discern this abstruse Dhamma,

Which goes against the worldly stream,

Subtle, deep, and difficult to see.

"Considering thus, my mind inclined to inaction rather than to

teaching the Dhamma.

20. "Then, monks, the Brahma Sahampati knew with his mind the

thought in my mind and he considered: 'The world will be lost, the

world will perish, since the mind of the Tathagata, the Arahant, the Per-

fectly Enlightened One, inclines to inaction rather than to teaching the

Dhamma.' Then, just as quickly as a strong man might extend his flexed

arm or flex his extended arm, the Brahma Sahampati vanished in the

brahma world and appeared before me. He arranged his upper robe on

one shoulder, and extending his hands in reverential salutation toward

me, said: 'Venerable sir, let the Blessed One teach the Dhamma, let the

Sublime One teach the Dhamma. There are beings with little dust in

their eyes who are perishing through not hearing the Dhamma. There

will be those who will understand the Dhamma.' The Brahma Saham-

pati spoke thus, and then he said further:

'In Magadha there have appeared till now

Impure teachings devised by those still stained.

The Bringer of Light 71

'Open the doors to the Deathless! Let them hear

The Dhamma that the stainless one has found.

'Just as one who stands on a mountain peak

Can see below the people all around,

So, O wise one, all-seeing sage,

Ascend the palace of the Dhamma.

Let the sorrowless one survey this human breed,

Engulfed in sorrow, overcome by birth and old age.

'Arise, victorious hero, caravan leader,

Debtless one, and wander in the world.

Let the Blessed One teach the Dhamma,

There will be those who will understand.'

21. "Then I listened to the Brahma's pleading, and out of compassion

for beings I surveyed the world with the eye of a Buddha. Surveying

the world with the eye of a Buddha, I saw beings with little dust in

their eyes and with much dust in their eyes, with keen faculties and

with dull faculties, with good qualities and with bad qualities, easy to

teach and hard to teach, and some who dwelled seeing fear and blame

in the other world. Just as in a pond of blue or red or white lotuses,

some lotuses that are born and grow in the water thrive immersed in

the water without rising out of it, and some other lotuses that are born

and grow in the water rest on the water's surface, and some other

lotuses that are born and grow in the water rise out of the water and

stand clear, unwetted by it; so too, surveying the world with the eye of

a Buddha, I saw beings with little dust in their eyes and with much

dust in their eyes, with keen faculties and with dull faculties, with

good qualities and with bad qualities, easy to teach and hard to teach,

and some who dwelled seeing fear and blame in the other world. Then

I replied to the Brahma Sahampati in stanzas:

'Open for them are the doors to the Deathless,

Let those with ears now show their faith.

Thinking it would be troublesome, O Brahma,

I did not speak the Dhamma subtle and sublime.'

72 In the Buddha's Words

"Then the Brahma Sahampati thought: The Blessed One has con-

sented to my request that he teach the Dhamma.' And after paying

homage to me, keeping me on the right, he thereupon departed at once.

22. "I considered thus: 'To whom should I first teach the Dhamma?

Who will understand this Dhamma quickly?' It then occurred to me:

'Alara Kalama is wise, intelligent, and discerning; he has long had lit-

tle dust in his eyes. Suppose I taught the Dhamma first to Alara

Kalama. He will understand it quickly.' Then deities approached me

and said: 'Venerable sir, Alara Kalama died seven days ago.' And the

knowledge and vision arose in me: 'Alara Kalama died seven days

ago.' I thought: 'Alara Kalama's loss is a great one. If he had heard this

Dhamma, he would have understood it quickly'

23. "I considered thus: 'To whom should I first teach the Dhamma?

Who will understand this Dhamma quickly?' It then occurred to me:

'Uddaka Ramaputta is wise, intelligent, and discerning; he has long

had little dust in his eyes. Suppose I taught the Dhamma first to

Uddaka Ramaputta. He will understand it quickly.' Then deities

approached me and said: 'Venerable sir, Uddaka Ramaputta died last

night.' And the knowledge and vision arose in me: 'Uddaka Rama-

putta died last night.' I thought: 'Uddaka Ramaputta's loss is a great

one. If he had heard this Dhamma, he would have understood it

quickly'

24. "I considered thus: 'To whom should I first teach the Dhamma?

Who will understand this Dhamma quickly?' It then occurred to me:

'The monks of the group of five who attended upon me while I was

engaged in my striving were very helpful.

Suppose I taught the

Dhamma first to them.' Then I thought: 'Where are the monks of the

group of five now living?' And with the divine eye, which is purified

and surpasses the human, I saw that they were living at Baranasi in the

Deer Park at Isipatana.

25. "Then, monks, when I had stayed at Uruvela as long as I chose,

I set out to wander by stages to Baranasi. Between Gaya and the Bodhi,

the Ajivaka Upaka saw me on the road and said: 'Friend, your facul-

ties are clear, the color of your skin is pure and bright. Under whom

have you gone forth, friend? Who is your teacher? Whose Dhamma

do you profess?' I replied to the Ajivaka Upaka in stanzas:

The Bringer of Light 73

'I am one who has transcended all, a knower of all,

Unsullied among all things, renouncing all,

By craving's ceasing freed. Having known this all

For myself, to whom should I point as teacher?

T have no teacher, and one like me

Exists nowhere in all the world

With all its devas, because I have

No person for my counterpart.

'For I am the arahant in the world,

I am the teacher supreme.

I alone am a Perfectly Enlightened One

Whose fires are quenched and extinguished.

T go now to the city of Kasi

To set in motion the wheel of Dhamma.

In a world that has become blind

I go to beat the drum of the Deathless.'

'By your claims, friend, you ought to be the universal victor.'

'The victors are those like me

Who have won the destruction of taints.

I have vanquished all evil states,

Therefore, Upaka, I am a victor.'

"When this was said, the Ajivaka Upaka said: 'May it be so, friend.'

Shaking his head, he took a bypath and departed.

26. "Then, monks, wandering by stages, I eventually came to Bara-

nasi, to the Deer Park at Isipatana, and I approached the monks of the

group of five. The monks saw me coming in the distance, and they

greed among themselves thus: 'Friends, here comes the ascetic

Gotama who lives luxuriously, who gave up his striving and reverted

to luxury. We should not pay homage to him or rise up for him or

receive his bowl and outer robe. But a seat may be prepared for him.

™ he likes, he may sit down.' However, as I approached, those monks

round themselves unable to keep their pact. One came to meet me and

74 In the Buddha's Words

took my bowl and outer robe, another prepared a seat, and another set

out water for my feet; however, they addressed me by name and as

'friend.'

27. "Thereupon I told them: 'Monks, do not address the Tathagata by

name and as "friend." The Tathagata is an Arahant, a Perfectly Enlight-

ened One. Listen, monks, the Deathless has been attained. I shall

instruct you, I shall teach you the Dhamma. Practicing as you are

instructed, by realizing it for yourselves here and now through direct

knowledge you will soon enter and dwell in that supreme goal of the

holy life for the sake of which clansmen rightly go forth from the home

life into homelessness.'

"When this was said, the monks of the group of five answered me

thus: 'Friend Gotama, by the conduct, the practice, and the perform-

ance of austerities that you undertook, you did not achieve any super-

human distinction in knowledge and vision worthy of the noble ones.

Since you now live luxuriously, having given up your striving and

reverted to luxury, how could you have achieved any superhuman dis-

tinction in knowledge and vision worthy of the noble ones?' When this

was said, I told them: 'The Tathagata does not live luxuriously, nor has

he given up his striving and reverted to luxury. The Tathagata is an

Arahant, a Perfectly Enlightened One. Listen, monks, the Deathless

has been attained ... from the home life into homelessness.'

"A second time the monks of the group of five said to me: 'Friend

Gotama ... how could you have achieved any superhuman distinc-

tion in knowledge and vision worthy of the noble ones?' A second

time I told them: 'The Tathagata does not live luxuriously ... from

the home life into homelessness.' A third time the monks of the group

of five said to me: 'Friend Gotama ... how could you have achieved

any superhuman distinction in knowledge and vision worthy of the

noble ones?'

28. "When this was said I asked them: 'Monks, have you ever known

me to speak like this before?'—'No, venerable sir.'

—'Monks, the

Tathagata is an Arahant, a Perfectly Enlightened One. Listen, monks,

the Deathless has been attained. I shall instruct you, I shall teach you

the Dhamma. Practicing as you are instructed, by realizing it for your-

selves here and now through direct knowledge, you will soon enter

and dwell in that supreme goal of the holy life for the sake of which

clansmen rightly go forth from the home life into homelessness.'

The Bringer of Light 75

29. "I was able to convince the monks of the group of five.

Then I

sometimes instructed two monks while the other three went for alms,

and the six of us lived on what those three monks brought back from

their almsround. Sometimes I instructed three monks while the other

two went for alms, and the six of us lived on what those two monks

brought back from their almsround.

30. "Then the monks of the group of five, thus taught and

instructed by me, being themselves subject to birth, having under-

stood the danger in what is subject to birth, seeking the unborn

supreme security from bondage, Nibbana, attained the unborn

supreme security from bondage, Nibbana; being themselves subject to

aging, sickness, death, sorrow, and defilement, having understood

the danger in what is subject to aging, sickness, death, sorrow, and

defilement, seeking the unaging, unailing, deathless, sorrowless, and

undefiled supreme security from bondage, Nibbana, they attained

the unaging, unailing, deathless, sorrowless, and undefiled supreme

security from bondage, Nibbana. The knowledge and vision arose in

them: 'Our liberation is unshakable; this is our last birth; now there is

no more renewed existence.'"

(from MN 26: Ariyapariyesana Sutta; 1167-73)

5. THE FIRST DISCOURSE

Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at

Baranasi in the Deer Park at Isipatana. There the Blessed One

addressed the monks of the group of five thus:

"Monks, these two extremes should not be followed by one who has

gone forth into homelessness. What two? The pursuit of sensual hap-

piness in sensual pleasures, which is low, vulgar, the way of

worldlings, ignoble, unbeneficial; and the pursuit of self-mortification,

which is painful, ignoble, unbeneficial. Without veering toward either

of these extremes, the Tathagata has awakened to the middle way,

which gives rise to vision, which gives rise to knowledge, and leads to

peace, to direct knowledge, to enlightenment, to Nibbana.

"And what, monks, is that middle way awakened to by the Tatha-

gata? It is this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view, right inten-

tion, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right

76 In the Buddha's Words

mindfulness, right concentration. This, monks, is that middle way

awakened to by the Tathagata, which gives rise to vision, which gives

rise to knowledge, and leads to peace, to direct knowledge, to enlight-

enment, to Nibbana.

"Now this, monks, is the noble truth of suffering: birth is suffering,

aging is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering; union with

what is displeasing is suffering; separation from what is pleasing is

suffering; not to get what one wants is suffering; in brief, the five aggre-

gates subject to clinging are suffering.

"Now this, monks, is the noble truth of the origin of suffering: it is

this craving that leads to renewed existence, accompanied by delight

and lust, seeking delight here and there; that is, craving for sensual

pleasures, craving for existence, craving for extermination.

"Now this, monks, is the noble truth of the cessation of suffering: it

is the remainderless fading away and cessation of that same craving,

the giving up and relinquishing of it, freedom from it, nonattachment.

"Now this, monks, is the noble truth of the way leading to the ces-

sation of suffering: it is this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ...

right concentration.

"'This is the noble truth of suffering': thus, monks, in regard to

things unheard before, there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom,

penetration, and light.

"'This noble truth of suffering is to be fully understood': thus,

monks, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me vision,

knowledge, wisdom, penetration, and light.

"'This noble truth of suffering has been fully understood': thus,

monks, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me vision,

knowledge, wisdom, penetration, and light.

"This is the noble truth of the origin of suffering': thus, monks, in

regard to things unheard before, there arose in me vision, knowledge,

wisdom, penetration, and light.

'"This noble truth of the origin of suffering is to be abandoned': thus,

monks, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me vision,

knowledge, wisdom, penetration, and light.

"This noble truth of the origin of suffering has been abandoned':

thus, monks, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me

vision, knowledge, wisdom, penetration, and light.

"This is the noble truth of the cessation of suffering': thus, monks,

The Bringer of high t 77

in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me vision, knowl-

edge, wisdom, penetration, and light.

"This noble truth of the cessation of suffering is to be realized': thus,

monks, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me vision,

knowledge, wisdom, penetration, and light.

"This noble truth of the cessation of suffering has been realized':

thus, monks, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in me

vision, knowledge, wisdom, penetration, and light.

"This is the noble truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffer-

ing': thus, monks, in regard to things unheard before, there arose in

me vision, knowledge, wisdom, penetration, and light.

"This noble truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering is

to be developed': thus, monks, in regard to things unheard before,

there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom, penetration, and light.

"This noble truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering

has been developed': thus, monks, in regard to things unheard before,

there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom, penetration, and light.

"So long, monks, as my knowledge and vision of these Four Noble

Truths as they really are in their three phases and twelve aspects was

not thoroughly purified in this way,

1 did not claim to have awak-

ened to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment in this world with its

devas, Mara, and Brahma, in this population with its ascetics and brah-

mins, its devas and humans. But when my knowledge and vision of

these Four Noble Truths as they really are in their three phases and

twelve aspects was thoroughly purified in this way, then I claimed to

have awakened to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment in this world

with its devas, Mara, and Brahma, in this population with its ascetics

and brahmins, its devas and humans. The knowledge and vision arose

in me: 'Unshakable is the liberation of my mind. This is my last birth.

Now there is no more renewed existence.'"

This is what the Blessed One said. Elated, the monks of the group of

five delighted in the Blessed One's statement. And while this discourse

Was being spoken, there arose in the Venerable Kondanna the dust-

free, stainless vision of the Dhamma: "Whatever is subject to origina-

tion is all subject to cessation."

And when the wheel of the Dhamma had been set in motion by the

Blessed One, the earth-dwelling devas raised a cry: "At Baranasi, in

the Deer Park at Isipatana, this unsurpassed wheel of the Dhamma has

78 In the Buddha's Words

been set in motion by the Blessed One, which cannot be stopped by any

ascetic or brahmin or deva or Mara or Brahma or by anyone in the

world." Having heard the cry of the earth-dwelling devas, the devas of

the realm of the Four Great Kings raised a cry: "At Baranasi ... this

unsurpassed wheel of the Dhamma has been set in motion by the

Blessed One, which cannot be stopped ... by anyone in the world."

Having heard the cry of the devas of the realm of the Four Great Kings,

the Tavatimsa devas ... the Yama devas ... the Tusita devas ... the

devas who delight in creating ... the devas who wield power over oth-

ers' creations ... the devas of Brahma's company

raised a cry: "At

Baranasi, in the Deer Park at Isipatana, this unsurpassed wheel of the

Dhamma has been set in motion by the Blessed One, which cannot be

stopped by any ascetic or brahmin or deva or Mara or Brahma or by

anyone in the world."

Thus at that moment, at that instant, at that second, the cry spread

as far as the brahma world, and this ten-thousand-fold world system

shook, quaked, and trembled, and an immeasurable great radiance

surpassing the divine majesty of the devas appeared in the world.

Then the Blessed One uttered this inspired utterance: "Kondahna

has indeed understood! Kondanna has indeed understood!" In this

way the Venerable Kondanna acquired the name "Anna Kondahna—

Kondanna Who Has Understood."

(SN 56:11: Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta; V 420-24)

III. Approaching the Dhamma

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....

: : I

'ifi'

INTRODUCTION

One of the most distressing predicaments any earnest, open-minded

spiritual seeker might face is the sheer difficulty of choosing from

among the bewildering diversity of religious and spiritual teachings

available. By their very nature, spiritual teachings make claims upon

our allegiance that are absolute and all-encompassing. Adherents of a

particular creed are prone to assert that their religion alone reveals the

final truth about our place in the universe and our ultimate destiny;

they boldly propose that their path alone offers the sure means to eter-

nal salvation. If we could suspend all belief commitments and com-

pare the competing doctrines impartially, submitting them to empirical

tests, we would have a sure-fire method of deciding between them,

and then our ordeal would be over. But it isn't that simple. Rival reli-

gions all propose—or presuppose—doctrines that we cannot directly

validate by personal experience; they advocate tenets that call for some

degree of trust. So, as their tenets and practices clash, we run up

against the problem of finding some way to decide between them and

negotiate their competing claims to truth.

One solution to this problem is to deny that there is any real conflict

between alternative belief systems. The adherents of this approach,

which we might call religious universalism, say that at their core all

spiritual traditions teach essentially the same thing. Their formulations

may differ but their inner core is the same, expressed differently merely

to accord with different sensibilities. What we need to do, the univer-

salist says, when faced with different spiritual traditions, is to extract

the kernel of inner truth from the pods of their exoteric creeds. From

ground level our goals look different, but from the heights we will find

the goal is the same; it is like the view of the moon from different

mountain peaks. Universalists in matters of doctrine often endorse

eclecticism in practice, holding that we can select whatever practices

we prefer and combine them like dishes at a buffet.

This solution to the problem of religious diversity has an immediate

appeal to those disillusioned with the exclusive claims of dogmatic

82 In the Buddha's Words

religion. Honest critical reflection, however, would show that on the

most vital issues the different religions and spiritual traditions take

different standpoints. They give us very different answers to our ques-

tions concerning the basic grounds and goals of the spiritual quest and

often these differences are not merely verbal. To sweep them away as

being merely verbal may be an effective way of achieving harmony

between followers of different belief systems, but it cannot withstand

close examination. In the end, it is as little tenable as saying that,

because they have beaks and wings, eagles, sparrows, and chickens

are essentially the same type of creature, the differences between them

being merely verbal.

It is not only theistic religions that teach doctrines beyond the range

of immediate empirical confirmation. The Buddha too taught doctrines

that an ordinary person cannot directly confirm by everyday experi-

ence, and these doctrines are fundamental to the structure of his teach-

ing. We saw, for example, in the introductions to chapters I and II, that

the Nikayas envisage a universe with many domains of sentient exis-

tence spread out in boundless space and time, a universe in which sen-

tient beings roam and wander from life to life on account of their

ignorance, craving, and kamma. The Nikayas presuppose that

throughout beginningless time, Buddhas without number have arisen

and turned the wheel of the Dhamma, and that each Buddha attains

enlightenment after cultivating spiritual perfections over long periods

of cosmic time. When we approach the Dhamma we are likely to resist

such beliefs and feel that they make excessive demands on our capac-

ity for trust. Thus we inevitably run up against the question whether,

if we wish to follow the Buddha's teaching, we must take on board the

entire package of classical Buddhist doctrine.

For Early Buddhism, all the problems we face in deciding how far

we should go in placing faith can be disposed of at a single stroke.

That single stroke involves reverting to direct experience as the ulti-

mate basis for judgment. One of the distinctive features of the

Buddha's teaching is the respect it accords to direct experience. The

texts of Early Buddhism do not teach a secret doctrine, nor do they

leave scope for anything like an esoteric path reserved for an elite of

initiates and withheld from others. According to Text 111,1, secrecy in

a religious teaching is the hallmark of wrong views and confused

thinking. The teaching of the Buddha shines openly, as radiant and

Approaching the Dhamma 83

brilliant as the light of the sun and moon. Freedom from the cloak of

secrecy is integral to a teaching that gives primacy to direct experi-

ence, inviting each individual to test its principles in the crucible of his

or her own experience.

This does not mean that an ordinary person can fully validate the

Buddha's doctrine by direct experience without special effort. To the

contrary, the teaching can only be fully realized through the achieve-

ment of certain extraordinary types of experience that are far beyond

the range of the ordinary person enmeshed in the concerns of mun-

dane life. However, in sharp contrast to revealed religion, the Buddha

does not demand that we begin our spiritual quest by placing faith in

doctrines that lie beyond the range of our immediate experience.

Rather than ask us to wrestle with issues that, for us in our present con-

dition, no amount of experience can decide, he instead asks us to con-

sider a few simple questions pertaining to our immediate welfare and

happiness, questions that we can answer on the basis of personal expe-

rience. I highlight the expression "for us in our present condition,"

because the fact that we cannot presently validate such matters does

not constitute grounds for rejecting them as invalid or even as irrele-

vant. It only means that we should put them aside for the time being

and concern ourselves with issues that come within the range of direct

experience.

The Buddha says that his teaching is about suffering and the cessa-

tion of suffering. This statement does not mean that the Dhamma is

concerned only with our experience of suffering in the present life, but

it does imply that we can use our present experience, backed by intel-

ligent observation, as a criterion for determining what is beneficial and

what detrimental to our spiritual progress. Our most insistent existen-

tial demand, springing up deep within us, is the need for freedom from

harm, sorrow, and distress; or, positively stated, the need to achieve

well-being and happiness. However, to avoid harm and to secure our

well-being, it is not sufficient for us merely to hope. We first have to

understand the conditions on which they depend. According to the

uddha, whatever arises, arises through appropriate causes and con-

ditions, and this applies with equal force to suffering and happiness.

us we must ascertain the causes and conditions that lead to harm

d suffering, and likewise the causes and conditions that lead to well-

eir

ig and happiness. Once we have extracted these two principles—

84 In the Buddha's Words

the conditions leading to harm and suffering, and the conditions lead-

ing to well-being and happiness—we have at our disposal an outline

of the entire process that leads to the ultimate goal, final liberation from

suffering.

One text offering an excellent example of this approach is a short

discourse in the Ahguttara Nikaya popularly known as the Kalama

Sutta, included as Text 111,2. The Kalamas were a people living in a

remote area of the Ganges plain. Various religious teachers would

come to visit them and each would extol his own doctrine and tear

down the doctrines of his rivals. Confused and perplexed by this con-

flict of belief systems, the Kalamas did not know whom to trust. When

the Buddha passed through their town, they approached him and

asked him to clear away their doubts. Though the text does not spec-

ify what particular issues were troubling the Kalamas, the later part of

the discourse makes it clear that their perplexities revolved around the

questions of rebirth and kamma.

The Buddha began by assuring the Kalamas that under such circum-

stances it was proper for them to doubt, for the issues that troubled

them were indeed common sources of doubt and perplexity. He then

told them not to rely on ten sources of belief. Four of these pertain to

established scriptural authority (oral tradition, lineage of teaching,

hearsay, and collections of texts); four to rational grounds (logic, infer-

ential reasoning, reasoned cogitation, and the acceptance of a view

after pondering it); and two to authoritative persons (impressive

speakers and respected teachers). This advice is sometimes quoted to

prove that the Buddha rejected all external authorities and invited each

individual to fashion his or her own personal path to truth. Read in

context, however, the message of the Kalama Sutta is quite different.

The Buddha is not advising the Kalamas—who, it must be stressed,

had at this point not yet become his own disciples—to reject all author-

itative guides to spiritual understanding and fall back solely on their

personal intuition. Rather, he is offering them a simple and pragmatic

outlet from the morass of doubt and perplexity in which they are

immersed. By the use of skillful methods of inquiry, he leads them to

understand a number of basic principles that they can verify by their

own experience and thereby acquire a sure starting point for further

spiritual development.

Always underlying the Buddha's questions and their replies is the

Approaching the Dhamma 85

tacit premise that people are primarily motivated to act by a concern

for their own welfare and happiness. In asking this particular set of

questions, the Buddha's purpose is to lead the Kalamas to see that,

even when we suspend all concern with future lives, unwholesome

mental states such as greed, hatred, and delusion, and unwholesome

actions such as killing and stealing, eventually redound to one's own

harm and suffering right here and now. Conversely, wholesome men-

tal states and wholesome actions promote one's long-term welfare and

happiness here and now. Once this much is seen, the immediately vis-

ible harmful consequences to which unwholesome mental states lead

become a sufficient reason for abandoning them, while the visible ben-

efits to which wholesome mental states lead become a sufficient moti-

vation for cultivating them. Then, whether or not there is a life after

death, one has adequate reasons in the present life to abandon unwhole-

some mental states and cultivate wholesome mental states. If there is

an afterlife, one's recompense is simply that much greater.

A similar approach underlies Text 111,3, in which the Buddha

demonstrates how present suffering arises and ceases in correlation

with present craving. This short sutta, addressed to a lay follower, con-

cisely articulates the causal principle that lies behind the Four Noble

Truths, but rather than doing so in the abstract, it adopts a concrete,

down-to-earth approach that has a remarkably contemporary appeal.

By using powerful examples drawn from the life of a layman deeply

attached to his wife and son, the sutta makes a deep and lasting

impression on us.

The fact that such texts as this sutta and the Kalama Sutta do not

dwell on the doctrines of kamma and rebirth does not mean, as is

sometimes assumed, that such teachings are mere cultural accretions

to the Dhamma that can be deleted or explained away without losing

anything essential. It means only that, at the outset, the Dhamma can

be approached in ways that do not require reference to past and

future lives. The Buddha's teaching has many sides, and thus, from

certain angles, it can be directly evaluated against our concern for

our present well-being and happiness. Once we see that the practice

°f the teaching does indeed bring peace, joy, and inner security in

this very life, this will inspire our trust and confidence in the

Lmamma as a whole, including those aspects that lie beyond our

Present capacity for personal verification. If we were to undertake

86 In the Buddha's Words

certain practices—practices that require highly refined skills and

determined effort—we would be able to acquire the faculties needed

to validate those other aspects, such as the law of kamma, the reality

of rebirth, and the existence of supersensible realms (see Text VII,4

§§23-24 and Text VII,5 §§19-20).

Another major problem that often besets spiritual seekers is the

demands that teachers place upon their capacity for trust. This prob-

lem has become especially acute in our own time, when the news

media gleefully spotlight the frailties of numberless gurus and jump at

the chance to show up any modern-day saint as nothing better than a

swindler in robes. But the problem of rogue gurus is a perennial one by

no means peculiar to our age. Whenever one person exercises spiri-

tual authority over others, it is only too easy for that person to be

tempted to exploit the trust others place in him in ways that can be

seriously detrimental to himself and his disciples. When a pupil

approaches a teacher who claims to be perfectly enlightened and thus

capable of teaching the path to final liberation, the pupil must have

some criteria at hand for testing the teacher to determine whether the

teacher truly measures up to the lofty claims he makes about himself—

or that others make about him.

In the Vimamsaka Sutta—Text 111,4—the Buddha lays down guide-

lines by which a monk can test "the Tathagata," that is, the Buddha, to

evaluate his claim to be perfectly enlightened. One benchmark of per-

fect enlightenment is freedom of the mind from all defilements. If a

monk cannot directly see into the Buddha's own mind, he can never-

theless rely on indirect evidence to ascertain that the Buddha is freed

from defilements; that is, by evaluating the Buddha's bodily deeds and

speech he can infer that the Buddha's mental states are exclusively

pure, uninfluenced by greed, hatred, and delusion. In addition to such

observational inference, the Buddha further encourages the monk to

approach him and directly inquire about his mental states.

Once the pupil gains confidence that the Buddha is a qualified

teacher, he then puts the Master to the ultimate test. He learns his

teaching, enters upon the practice, and penetrates the Dhamma by

direct knowledge. This act of penetration—here equivalent at mini-

mum to the attainment of stream-entry—brings the gain of "invincible

faith," the faith of one who is established upon the irreversible path

leading to final release.

Approaching the Dhamma 87

Taken in isolation, the Vimamsaka Sutta might give the impression

that one acquires faith only after gaining realization of the teaching,

and since realization is self-validating, faith would then become redun-

dant. This impression, however, would be one-sided. The point the

sutta is making is that faith becomes invincible as a result of realiza-

tion, not that faith first enters the spiritual path only when one attains

realization. Faith is the first of the five spiritual faculties, and in some

degree, as trusting confidence in the Buddha's enlightenment and in

the main principles of his teaching, it is a prerequisite for the higher

training. We see faith functioning in this preparatory role in Text 111,5,

a long excerpt from the Cahki Sutta. Here, the Buddha explains that a

person who has faith in something "preserves truth" when he says

"this is my faith." He "preserves truth" because he merely states what

he believes without jumping to the conclusion that what he believes is

definitely true and anything else contrary to it false. The Buddha con-

trasts the "preservation of truth" (saccanurakkhana) with the "discovery

of truth" {saccanubodha), which begins by placing faith in a teacher who

has proved himself worthy of trust. Having gained faith in such a

teacher, one then approaches him for instruction, learns the Dhamma,

practices it (according to a series of steps more finely calibrated than in

the preceding text), and finally sees the supreme truth for oneself.

This does not yet mark the end of the road for the disciple, but only

the initial breakthrough to the truth, again corresponding to the attain-

ment of stream-entry. Having achieved the vision of truth, to reach the

"final arrival at truth" (saccanupatti)—that is, the attainment of ara-

hantship or final liberation—one must repeat, develop, and cultivate

the same series of steps until one has fully absorbed and assimilated

the supreme truth disclosed by that initial vision. Thus the entire

process of training in the Dhamma is rooted in personal experience.

Even faith should be rooted in investigation and inquiry and not based

solely upon emotional leanings and blind belief. Faith alone is insuffi-

cient but is the door to deeper levels of experience. Faith serves as a

pur to practice; practice leads to experiential understanding; and

when one's understanding matures, it blossoms in full realization.

III. APPROACHING THE DHAMMA

1. NOT A SECRET DOCTRINE

"These three things, monks, are conducted in secret, not openly.

What three? Affairs with women, the mantras of the brahmins, and

wrong view.

"But these three things, monks, shine openly, not in secret. What

three? The moon, the sun, and the Dhamma and Discipline proclaimed

by the Tathagata."

(AN 3:129; 1282-83)

2. No DOGMAS OR BLIND BELIEF

Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was wandering on

tour together with a large Sahgha of monks when he arrived at a town

of the Kalamas named Kesaputta.

Now the Kalamas of Kesaputta

heard: "It is said that the ascetic Gotama, the Sakyan son who went

forth from a Sakyan family, has arrived at Kesaputta. Now a good

report about that master Gotama has been circulating thus: 'That

Blessed One is an arahant, perfectly enlightened, accomplished in true

knowledge and conduct, fortunate, knower of the world, unsurpassed

leader of persons to be tamed, teacher of devas and humans, the

Enlightened One, the Blessed One. Having realized with his own direct

knowledge this world with its devas, Mara, and Brahma, this popula-

tion with its ascetics and brahmins, with its devas and humans, he

makes it known to others. He teaches a Dhamma that is good in the

beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end, with the right

meaning and expression; he reveals a spiritual life that is perfectly com-

plete and purified.' Now it is good to see such arahants."

Then the Kalamas of Kesaputta approached the Blessed One. Some

paid homage to him and sat down to one side; some exchanged greet-

ings with him and, after their greetings and cordial talk, sat down to

Approaching the Dhamma 89

one side; some saluted him reverentially and sat down to one side;

some remained silent and sat down to one side. Then the Kalamas said

to the Blessed One:

"Venerable sir, some ascetics and brahmins who come to Kesaputta

explain and elucidate their own doctrines, but disparage, debunk, revile,

and vilify the doctrines of others. But then some other ascetics and brah-

mins come to Kesaputta, and they too explain and elucidate their own

doctrines, but disparage, debunk, revile, and vilify the doctrines of the

others. For us, venerable sir, there is perplexity and doubt as to which

of these good ascetics speak truth and which speak falsehood."

"It is fitting for you to be perplexed, O Kalamas, it is fitting for you to

be in doubt. Doubt has arisen in you about a perplexing matter. Come,

Kalamas. Do not go by oral tradition, by lineage of teaching, by hearsay,

by a collection of texts, by logic, by inferential reasoning, by reasoned

cogitation, by the acceptance of a view after pondering it, by the seem-

ing competence of a speaker, or because you think, 'The ascetic is our

teacher.'

But when you know for yourselves, 'These things are unwhole-

some; these things are blamable; these things are censured by the wise;

these things, if undertaken and practiced, lead to harm and suffering,'

then you should abandon them.

"What do you think, Kalamas? When greed, hatred, and delusion

arise in a person, is it for his welfare or harm?"

~"For his harm, vener-

able sir."—"Kalamas, a person who is greedy, hating, and deluded,

overpowered by greed, hatred, and delusion, his thoughts controlled

by them, will destroy life, take what is not given, engage in sexual mis-

conduct, and tell lies; he will also prompt others to do likewise. Will

that conduce to his harm and suffering for a long time?"—"Yes, ven-

erable sir."

"What do you think, Kalamas? Are these things wholesome or

unwholesome?—"Unwholesome, venerable sir."—"Blamable or

blameless?"—"Blamable, venerable sir."—"Censured or praised by the

wise?"—"Censured, venerable sir."—"Undertaken and practiced, do

they lead to harm and suffering or not, or how is it in this case?"—

'Undertaken and practiced, these things lead to harm and suffering. So

« appears to us in this case."

"It was for this reason, Kalamas, that we said: Do not go by oral tra-

dition....

"Come, Kalamas. Do not go by oral tradition, by lineage of teaching,

90 In the Buddha's Words

by hearsay, by a collection of texts, by logic, by inferential reasoning, by

reasoned cogitation, by the acceptance of a view after pondering it, by

the seeming competence of a speaker, or because you think, 'The asce-

tic is our teacher.' But when you know for yourselves, 'These things are

wholesome; these things are blameless; these things are praised by the

wise; these things, if undertaken and practiced, lead to welfare and

happiness/ then you should engage in them.

"What do you think, Kalamas? When nongreed, nonhatred, and

nondelusion arise in a person, is it for his welfare or harm?"—"For his

welfare, venerable sir."—"Kalamas, a person who is without greed,

without hatred, without delusion, not overpowered by greed, hatred,

and delusion, his thoughts not controlled by them, will abstain from

the destruction of life, from taking what is not given, from sexual mis-

conduct, and from false speech; he will also prompt others to do like-

wise. Will that conduce to his welfare and happiness for a long

time?"—"Yes, venerable sir."

"What do you think, Kalamas? Are these things wholesome or

unwholesome?—"Wholesome, venerable sir."—"Blamable or blame-

less?"—"Blameless, venerable sir."—"Censured or praised by the

wise?"—"Praised, venerable sir."—"Undertaken and practiced, do

they lead to welfare and happiness or not, or how is it in this case?"—

"Undertaken and practiced, these things lead to welfare and happi-

ness. So it appears to us in this case."

"It was for this reason, Kalamas, that we said: Do not go upon oral

tradition....

"Then, Kalamas, that noble disciple—devoid of covetousness,

devoid of ill will, unconfused, clearly comprehending, ever mindful—

dwells pervading one quarter with a mind imbued with loving-

kindness, likewise the second quarter, the third, and the fourth.

Thus

above, below, across, and everywhere, and to all as to himself, he dwells

pervading the entire world with a mind imbued with loving-kindness,

vast, exalted, measureless, without hostility and without ill will.

"He dwells pervading one quarter with a mind imbued with com-

passion ... with altruistic joy ... with equanimity, likewise the second

quarter, the third, and the fourth. Thus above, below, across, and every-

where, and to all as to himself, he dwells pervading the entire world

with a mind imbued with equanimity, vast, exalted, measureless, with-

out hostility and without ill will.

Approaching the Dhamma 91

"When, Kalamas, this noble disciple has thus made his mind free of

enmity, free of ill will, uncorrupted and pure, he has won four assur-

ances in this very life.

"The first assurance he has won is this: 'If there is another world,

and if good and bad deeds bear fruit and yield results, it is possible that

with the breakup of the body, after death, I shall arise in a good desti-

nation, in a heavenly world.'

"The second assurance he has won is this: 'If there is no other world,

and if good and bad deeds do not bear fruit and yield results, still right

here, in this very life, I live happily, free of enmity and ill will.

"The third assurance he has won is this: 'Suppose evil befalls the

evil-doer. Then, as I do not intend evil for anyone, how can suffering

afflict me, one who does no evil deed?'

"The fourth assurance he has won is this: 'Suppose evil does not

befall the evil-doer. Then right here I see myself purified in both

respects.'

"When, Kalamas, this noble disciple has thus made his mind free of

enmity, free of ill will, uncorrupted, and pure, he has won these four

assurances in this very life."

"So it is, Blessed One! So it is, Fortunate One! When this noble dis-

ciple has thus made his mind free of enmity, free of ill will, uncorrupted

and pure, he has won these four assurances in this very life.

"Magnificent, venerable sir! Magnificent, venerable sir! The Blessed

One has made the Dhamma clear in many ways, as though he were

turning upright what had been overthrown, revealing what was hid-

den, showing the way to one who was lost, or holding up a lamp in the

darkness so those with good eyesight can see forms. We now go for

refuge to the Blessed One, to the Dhamma, and to the Sahgha of

monks. Let the Blessed One accept us as lay followers who have gone

for refuge from today until life's end."

(AN 3:65; 1188-93)

- THE VISIBLE ORIGIN

AND PASSING AWAY OF SUFFERING

one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at a town of the Mal-

8 named Uruvelakappa. Then Bhadraka the headman

approached

92 In the Buddha's Words

the Blessed One, paid homage to him, sat down to one side, and said

to him: "It would be good, venerable sir, if the Blessed One would

teach me about the origin and the passing away of suffering."

"If, headman, I were to teach you about the origin and the passing

away of suffering with reference to the past, saying, 'So it was in the

past/ perplexity and uncertainty about that might arise in you. And if

I were to teach you about the origin and the passing away of suffering

with reference to the future, saying, 'So it will be in the future/ perplex-

ity and uncertainty about that might arise in you. Instead, headman,

while I am sitting right here, and you are sitting right there, I will teach

you about the origin and the passing away of suffering. Listen and

attend closely, I will speak."

"Yes, venerable sir," Bhadraka replied. The Blessed One said this:

"What do you think, headman? Are there any people in Uruve-

lakappa on whose account sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and

despair would arise in you if they were to be executed, imprisoned,

fined, or censured?"

"There are such people, venerable sir."

"But are there any people in Uruvelakappa on whose account sor-

row, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair would not arise in you

in such an event?"

"There are such people, venerable sir."

"Why is it, headman, that in relation to some people in Uruvela-

kappa sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair would arise in

you if they were to be executed, imprisoned, fined, or censured, while

in regard to others they would not arise in you?"

"Those people in Uruvelakappa, venerable sir, in relation to whom

sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair would arise in me if

they were to be executed, imprisoned, fined, or censured—these are

the ones for whom I have desire and attachment. But those people in

Uruvelakappa in relation to whom they would not arise in me—these

are the ones for whom I have no desire and attachment."

"Headman, by means of this principle that is seen, understood,

immediately attained, fathomed, apply the method to the past and to

the future thus: 'Whatever suffering arose in the past, all that arose

rooted in desire, with desire as its source; for desire is the root of suffer-

ing. Whatever suffering will arise in the future, all that will arise rooted

in desire, with desire as its source; for desire is the root of suffering.'"

Approaching the Dhamma 93

"It is wonderful, venerable sir! It is amazing, venerable sir! How well

that has been stated by the Blessed One: 'Whatever suffering arises, all

that is rooted in desire, has desire as its source; for desire is the root of

suffering.'

Venerable sir, I have a son named Ciravasi, who stays at an

outside residence. I rise early and send a man, saying, 'Go, man, and

find out how Ciravasi is.' Until that man returns, venerable sir, I am

upset, thinking, T hope Ciravasi has not met with any affliction!'"

"What do you think, headman? If Ciravasi were to be executed,

imprisoned, fined, or censured, would sorrow, lamentation, pain,

dejection, and despair arise in you?"

"Venerable sir, if Ciravasi were to be executed, imprisoned, fined, or

censured, even my life would seem futile, so how could sorrow, lamen-

tation, pain, dejection, and despair not arise in me?"

"In this way too, headman, it can be understood: 'Whatever suffer-

ing arises, all that arises rooted in desire, with desire as its source; for

desire is the root of suffering.'

"What do you think, headman? Before you saw your wife or heard

about her, did you have any desire, attachment, or affection for her?"

"No, venerable sir."

"Then was it, headman, only when you saw her or heard about her

that this desire, attachment, and affection arose in you?"

"Yes, venerable sir."

"What do you think, headman? If your wife were to be executed,

imprisoned, fined, or censured, would sorrow, lamentation, pain,

dejection, and despair arise in you?"

"Venerable sir, if my wife were to be executed, imprisoned, fined, or

censured, even my life would seem futile, so how could sorrow, lamen-

tation, pain, dejection, and despair not arise in me?"

"In this way too, headman, it can be understood: 'Whatever suffer-

ing arises, all that arises rooted in desire, with desire as its source; for

desire is the root of suffering.'"

(SN 42:11; IV 327-30)

4- INVESTIGATE THE TEACHER HIMSELF

• Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living at

Vatthi in Jeta's Grove, Anathapindika's Park. There he addressed the

94 In the Buddha's Words

monks thus: "Monks!"—"Venerable sir!" they replied. The Blessed One

said this:

2. "Monks, a monk who is an inquirer, not knowing how to gauge

another's mind,

should make an investigation of the Tathagata in

order to find out whether or not he is perfectly enlightened."

3. "Venerable sir, our teachings are rooted in the Blessed One, guided

by the Blessed One, have the Blessed One as their resort. It would be

good if the Blessed One would explain the meaning of these words.

Having heard it from him, the monks will remember it."

"Then listen, monks, and attend closely to what I shall say."

"Yes, venerable sir," the monks replied. The Blessed One said this:

4. "Monks, a monk who is an inquirer, not knowing how to gauge

another's mind, should investigate the Tathagata with respect to two

kinds of states, states cognizable through the eye and through the ear

thus: 'Are there found in the Tathagata or not any defiled states cogniz-

able through the eye or through the ear?'

When he investigates him,

he comes to know: 'No defiled states cognizable through the eye or

through the ear are found in the Tathagata.'

5. "When he comes to know this, he investigates him further thus:

'Are there found in the Tathagata or not any mixed states cognizable

through the eye or through the ear?'

When he investigates him, he

comes to know: 'No mixed states cognizable through the eye or

through the ear are found in the Tathagata.'

6. "When he comes to know this, he investigates him further thus:

'Are there found in the Tathagata or not cleansed states cognizable

through the eye or through the ear?' When he investigates him, he

comes to know: 'Cleansed states cognizable through the eye or through

the ear are found in the Tathagata.'

7. "When he comes to know this, he investigates him further thus:

'Has this venerable one attained this wholesome state over a long time

or did he attain it recently?' When he investigates him, he comes to

know: 'This venerable one has attained this wholesome state over a

long time; he did not attain it only recently'

8. "When he comes to know this, he investigates him further thus:

'Has this venerable one acquired renown and attained fame, so that

the dangers [connected with renown and fame] are found in him?' For,

monks, as long as a monk has not acquired renown and attained fame,

the dangers [connected with renown and fame] are not found in him;

Approaching the Dhamma 95

but when he has acquired renown and attained fame, those dangers are

found in him.

When he investigates him, he comes to know: 'This

venerable one has acquired renown and attained fame, but the dan-

gers [connected with renown and fame] are not found in him.'

9. "When he comes to know this, he investigates him further thus: 'Is

this venerable one restrained without fear, not restrained by fear, and

does he avoid indulging in sensual pleasures because he is without

lust through the destruction of lust?' When he investigates him, he

comes to know: 'This venerable one is restrained without fear, not

restrained by fear, and he avoids indulging in sensual pleasure because

he is without lust through the destruction of lust.'

10. "Now, monks, if others should ask that monk thus: 'What are the

venerable one's reasons and what is his evidence whereby he says:

"That venerable one is restrained without fear, not restrained by fear,

and he avoids indulging in sensual pleasures because he is without lust

through the destruction of lust"?'—answering rightly, that monk would

answer thus: 'Whether that venerable one dwells in the Sahgha or

alone, while some there are well behaved and some are ill behaved and

some there teach a group, while some here are seen concerned about

material things and some are unsullied by material things, still that ven-

erable one does not despise anyone because of that.

And I have heard

and learned this from the Blessed One's own lips: "I am restrained with-

out fear, not restrained by fear, and I avoid indulging in sensual pleas-

ures because I am without lust through the destruction of lust.'"

11. "The

Tathagata, monks, should be questioned further about that

thus: 'Are there found in the Tathagata or not any defiled states cogniz-

able through the eye or through the ear?' The Tathagata would answer

thus: 'No defiled states cognizable through the eye or through the ear

are found in the Tathagata.'

12. "If asked, 'Are there found in the Tathagata or not any mixed

states cognizable through the eye or through the ear?' the Tathagata

ould answer thus: 'No mixed states cognizable through the eye or

through the ear are found in the Tathagata.'

13. "If asked, 'Are there found in the Tathagata or not cleansed states

gnizable through the eye or through the ear?' the Tathagata would

answer thus: 'Cleansed states cognizable through the eye or through

he ear are found in the Tathagata. They are my pathway and my

°rnain, yet I do not identify with them.'

96 In the Buddha's Words

14. "Monks, a disciple should approach the Teacher who speaks thus

in order to hear the Dhamma. The Teacher teaches him the Dhamma

with its successively higher levels, with its successively more sublime

levels, with its dark and bright counterparts. As the Teacher teaches the

Dhamma to a monk in this way, through direct knowledge of a certain

teaching here in that Dhamma, the monk comes to a conclusion about

the teachings.

He places confidence in the Teacher thus: The Blessed

One is perfectly enlightened, the Dhamma is well proclaimed by the

Blessed One, the Sahgha is practicing the good way.'

15. "Now if others should ask that monk thus: 'What are the vener-

able one's reasons and what is his evidence whereby he says, "The

Blessed One is perfectly enlightened, the Dhamma is well proclaimed

by the Blessed One, the Sahgha is practicing the good way"?'—answer-

ing rightly, that monk would answer thus: 'Here, friends, I approached

the Blessed One in order to hear the Dhamma. The Blessed One taught

me the Dhamma with its successively higher levels, with its succes-

sively more sublime levels, with its dark and bright counterparts. As

the Blessed One taught the Dhamma to me in this way, through direct

knowledge of a certain teaching here in that Dhamma, I came to a con-

clusion about the teachings. I placed confidence in the Teacher thus:

"The Blessed One is perfectly enlightened, the Dhamma is well pro-

claimed by the Blessed One, the Sahgha is practicing the good way."'

16. "Monks, when anyone's faith has been planted, rooted, and

established in the Tathagata through these reasons, terms, and phrases,

his faith is said to be supported by reasons, rooted in vision, firm; it is

invincible by any ascetic or brahmin or deva or Mara or Brahma or by

anyone in the world.

That is how, monks, there is an investigation of

the Tathagata in accordance with the Dhamma, and that is how the

Tathagata is well investigated in accordance with the Dhamma."

That is what the Blessed One said. The monks were satisfied and

delighted in the Blessed One's words.

(MN 47: Vimamsaka Sutta; 1317-20)

5. STEPS TOWARD THE REALIZATION OF TRUTH

10. Then the brahmin Cahkl,

together with a large company of brah-

mins, went to the Blessed One, exchanged greetings with him, and sat

down at one side.

Approaching the Dhamma 97

11. Now on that occasion the Blessed One was seated finishing some

amiable talk with some very senior brahmins. At the time, sitting in the

assembly, was a brahmin student named Kapathika. Young, shaven-

headed, sixteen years old, he was a master of the three Vedas with their

vocabularies, liturgy, phonology, and etymology, and the histories as a

fifth; skilled in philology and grammar, he was fully versed in natural

philosophy and in the marks of a great man. While the very senior

brahmins were conversing with the Blessed One, he repeatedly broke

in and interrupted their talk. Then the Blessed One rebuked the brah-

min student Kapathika thus: "The honorable Bharadvaja

shouldn't

break in and interrupt the talk of the very senior brahmins while they

are conversing. He should wait until the talk is finished."

When this was said, the brahmin Cahki said to the Blessed One:

"Master Gotama shouldn't rebuke the brahmin student Kapathika.

This brahmin student is very learned; he has a good delivery; he is

wise. He can well take part in this discussion with Master Gotama."

12. Then the Blessed One thought: "Surely, since the brahmins honor

him thus, the brahmin student Kapathika must be accomplished in the

scriptures of the three Vedas."

Then the brahmin student Kapathika thought: "When the ascetic

Gotama catches my eye, I shall ask him a question."

Then, knowing with his own mind the thought in the brahmin stu-

dent Kapathika's mind, the Blessed One turned his eye toward him.

Then the brahmin student Kapathika thought: "The ascetic Gotama

has turned toward me. Suppose I ask him a question." Then he said to

the Blessed One: "Master Gotama, in regard to the ancient brahmin

hymns that have come down through oral transmission, preserved in

the collections, the brahmins come to the definite conclusion: 'Only

this is true, anything else is wrong.' What does Master Gotama say

about this?"

13. "How then, Bharadvaja, among the brahmins is there even a sin-

gle brahmin who says thus: T know this, I see this: only this is true,

anything else is wrong'?"—"No, Master Gotama."

How then, Bharadvaja, among the brahmins is there even a single

teacher or a single teacher's teacher back to the seventh generation of

teachers who says thus: T know this, I see this: only this is true, any-

thing else is wrong'?"—"No, Master Gotama."

How then, Bharadvaja, the ancient brahmin seers, the creators of

hymns, the composers of the hymns, whose ancient hymns that

98 In the Buddha's Words

were formerly chanted, uttered, and compiled, the brahmins nowa-

days still chant and repeat, repeating what was spoken and reciting

what was recited—that is, Atthaka, Vamaka, Vamadeva, Vessamitta,

Yamataggi, Angirasa, Bharadvaja, Vasettha, Kassapa, and Bhagu

—

did even these ancient brahmin seers say thus: 'We know this, we see

this: only this is true, anything else is wrong'?"—"No, Master

Gotama."

"So, Bharadvaja, it seems that among the brahmins there is not even

a single brahmin who says thus: 'I know this, I see this: only this is

true, anything else is wrong.' And among the brahmins there is not

even a single teacher or a single teacher's teacher back to the seventh

generation of teachers, who says thus: 'I know this, I see this: only this

is true, anything else is wrong.' And the ancient brahmin seers, the cre-

ators of the hymns, the composers of the hymns ... even these ancient

brahmin seers did not say thus: 'We know this, we see this: only this is

true, anything else is wrong.' Suppose there were a file of blind men

each in touch with the next: the first one does not see, the middle one

does not see, and the last one does not see. So too, Bharadvaja, in

regard to their statement the brahmins seem to be like a file of blind

men: the first one does not see, the middle one does not see, and the

last one does not see. What do you think, Bharadvaja, that being so,

does not the faith of the brahmins turn out to be groundless?"

14. "The brahmins honor this not only out of faith, Master Gotama.

They also honor it as oral tradition."

"Bharadvaja, first you took your stand on faith, now you speak of

oral tradition. There are five things, Bharadvaja, that may turn out in

two different ways here and now. What five? Faith, approval, oral tra-

dition, reasoned cogitation, and acceptance of a view as a result of pon-

dering it.

These five things may turn out in two different ways here

and now. Now something may be fully accepted out of faith, yet it may

be empty, hollow, and false; but something else may not be fully

accepted out of faith, yet it may be factual, true, and unmistaken.

Again, something may be fully approved of ... well transmitted ... well

cogitated ... well pondered, yet it may be empty, hollow, and false; but

something else may not be well pondered, yet it may be factual, true,

and unmistaken. [Under these conditions] it is not proper for a wise

man who preserves truth to come to the definite conclusion: 'Only this

is true, anything else is wrong.'"

Approaching the Dhatnma 99

15. "But, Master Gotama, in what way is there the preservation of

truth?

How does one preserve truth? We ask Master Gotama about

the preservation of truth."

"If a person has faith, Bharadvaja, he preserves truth when he says:

'My faith is thus'; but he does not yet come to the definite conclusion:

'Only this is true, anything else is wrong.' In this way, Bharadvaja,

there is the preservation of truth; in this way he preserves truth; in this

way we describe the preservation of truth. But as yet there is no discov-

ery of truth.

"If a person approves of something ... if he receives an oral tradi-

tion ... if he [reaches a conclusion based on] reasoned cogitation ... if

he accepts a view as a result of pondering it, he preserves truth when

he says: 'The view that I accept as a result of pondering it is thus'; but

he does not yet come to the definite conclusion: 'Only this is true, any-

thing else is wrong.' In this way too, Bharadvaja, there is the preser-

vation of truth; in this way he preserves truth; in this way we describe

the preservation of truth. But as yet there is no discovery of truth."

16. "In that way, Master Gotama, there is the preservation of truth;

in that way one preserves truth; in that way we recognize the preser-

vation of truth. But in what way, Master Gotama, is there the discov-

ery of truth? In what way does one discover truth? We ask Master

Gotama about the discovery of truth."

17. "Here, Bharadvaja, a monk may be living in dependence on some

village or town. Then a householder or a householder's son goes to

him and investigates him in regard to three kinds of states: in regard

to states based on greed, in regard to states based on hate, and in regard

to states based on delusion: 'Are there in this monk any states based on

greed such that, with his mind obsessed by those states, while not

knowing he might say, "I know," or while not seeing he might say, "I

see," or he might urge others to act in a way that would lead to their

harm and suffering for a long time?' As he investigates him he comes

to know: 'There are no such states based on greed in this monk. The

bodily and verbal behavior of this monk are not those of one affected

by greed. And the Dhamma that he teaches is profound, hard to see

and hard to understand, peaceful and sublime, unattainable by mere

reasoning, subtle, to be experienced by the wise. This Dhamma cannot

easily be taught by one affected by greed.'

18. "When he has investigated him and has seen that he is purified

100 In the Buddha's Words

from states based on greed, he next investigates him in regard to states

based on hate: 'Are there in this monk any states based on hate such

that, with his mind obsessed by those states ... he might urge others to

act in a way that would lead to their harm and suffering for a long

time?' As he investigates him, he comes to know: 'There are no such

states based on hate in this monk. The bodily and verbal behavior of

this monk are not those of one affected by hate. And the Dhamma that

he teaches is profound ... to be experienced by the wise. This Dhamma

cannot easily be taught by one affected by hate.'

19. "When he has investigated him and has seen that he is purified

from states based on hate, he next investigates him in regard to states

based on delusion: 'Are there in this monk any states based on delu-

sion such that, with his mind obsessed by those states ... he might

urge others to act in a way that would lead to their harm and suffer-

ing for a long time?' As he investigates him, he comes to know: 'There

are no such states based on delusion in this monk. The bodily and ver-

bal behavior of this monk are not those of one affected by delusion.

And the Dhamma that he teaches is profound ... to be experienced

by the wise. This Dhamma cannot easily be taught by one affected by

delusion.'

20. "When he has investigated him and has seen that he is purified

from states based on delusion, then he places faith in him; filled with

faith he visits him and pays respect to him; having paid respect to him,

he gives ear; when he gives ear, he hears the Dhamma; having heard

the Dhamma, he memorizes it and examines the meaning of the teach-

ings he has memorized; when he examines their meaning, he accepts

those teachings as a result of pondering them; when he has accepted

those teachings as a result of pondering them, desire springs up; when

desire has sprung up, he applies his will; having applied his will, he

scrutinizes; having scrutinized, he strives; resolutely striving, he real-

izes with the body the supreme truth and sees it by penetrating it with

wisdom.

In this way, Bharadvaja, there is the discovery of truth; in this

way one discovers truth; in this way we describe the discovery of truth.

But as yet there is no final arrival at truth."

21. "In that way, Master Gotama, there is the discovery of truth; in

that way one discovers truth; in that way we recognize the discovery

of truth. But in what way, Master Gotama, is there the final arrival at

truth? In what way does one finally arrive at truth? We ask Master

Gotama about the final arrival at truth."

Approaching the Dhamma 101

"The final arrival at truth, Bharadvaja, lies in the repetition, develop-

ment, and cultivation of those same things. In this way, Bharadvaja,

there is the final arrival at truth; in this way one finally arrives at truth;

in this way we describe the final arrival at truth."

22. "In that way, Master Gotama, there is the final arrival at truth; in

that way one finally arrives at truth; in that way we recognize the final

arrival at truth. But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for the final

arrival at truth? We ask Master Gotama about the thing most helpful

for the final arrival at truth."

"Striving is most helpful for the final arrival at truth, Bharadvaja. If

one does not strive, one will not finally arrive at truth; but because one

strives, one does finally arrive at truth. That is why striving is most

helpful for the final arrival at truth."

23. "But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for striving? We ask

Master Gotama about the thing most helpful for striving."

"Scrutiny is most helpful for striving, Bharadvaja. If one does not

scrutinize, one will not strive; but because one scrutinizes, one strives.

That is why scrutiny is most helpful for striving."

24. "But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for scrutiny? We ask

Master Gotama about the thing most helpful for scrutiny."

"Application of the will is most helpful for scrutiny, Bharadvaja. If

one does not apply one's will, one will not scrutinize; but because one

applies one's will, one scrutinizes. That is why application of the will

is most helpful for scrutiny."

25. "But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for application of the

will? We ask Master Gotama about the thing most helpful for applica-

tion of the will."

"Desire is most helpful for application of the will, Bharadvaja. If one

does not arouse desire, one will not apply one's will; but because one

arouses desire, one applies one's will. That is why desire is most help-

ful for application of the will."

26. "But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for desire? We ask

Master Gotama about the thing most helpful for desire."

"Accepting the teachings as a result of pondering them is most help-

ful for desire, Bharadvaja. If one does not accept the teachings as a

result of pondering them, desire will not spring up; but because one

accepts the teachings as a result of pondering them, desire springs up.

* hat is why accepting the teachings as a result of pondering them is

rnost helpful for desire."

102 In the Buddha's Words

27. "But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for accepting the

teachings as a result of pondering them? We ask Master Gotama about

the thing most helpful for accepting the teachings as a result of ponder-

ing them."

"Examination of the meaning is most helpful for accepting the teach-

ings as a result of pondering them, Bharadvaja. If one does not exam-

ine their meaning, one will not accept the teachings as a result of

pondering them; but because one examines their meaning, one accepts

the teachings as a result of pondering them. That is why examination

of the meaning is most helpful for accepting the teachings as a result

of pondering them."

28. "But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for examination of

the meaning? We ask Master Gotama about the thing most helpful for

examination of meaning."

"Memorizing the teachings is most helpful for examining the mean-

ing, Bharadvaja. If one does not memorize a teaching, one will not

examine its meaning; but because one memorizes a teaching, one

examines its meaning."

29. "But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for memorizing the

teachings? We ask Master Gotama about the thing most helpful for

memorizing the teachings."

"Hearing the Dhamma is most helpful for memorizing the teach-

ings, Bharadvaja. If one does not hear the Dhamma, one will not mem-

orize the teachings; but because one hears the Dhamma, one

memorizes the teachings. That is why hearing the Dhamma is most

helpful for memorizing the teachings."

30. "But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for hearing the

Dhamma? We ask Master Gotama about the thing most helpful for

hearing the Dhamma."

"Giving ear is most helpful for hearing the Dhamma, Bharadvaja. If

one does not give ear, one will not hear the Dhamma; but because one

gives ear, one hears the Dhamma. That is why giving ear is most help-

ful for hearing the Dhamma."

31. "But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for giving ear? We

ask Master Gotama about the thing most helpful for giving ear."

"Paying respect is most helpful for giving ear, Bharadvaja. If one

does not pay respect, one will not give ear; but because one pays

respect, one gives ear. That is why paying respect is most helpful for

giving ear."

Approaching the Dhamma 103

32. "But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for paying respect?

We ask Master Gotama about the thing most helpful for paying respect."

"Visiting is most helpful for paying respect, Bharadvaja. If one does

ot visit a teacher, one will not pay respect to him; but because one

visits a teacher, one pays respect to him. That is why visiting is most

helpful for paying respect."

33. "But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for visiting? We ask

Master Gotama about the thing most helpful for visiting."

"Faith is most helpful for visiting, Bharadvaja. If faith in a teacher

does not arise, one will not visit him; but because faith in a teacher

arises, one visits him. That is why faith is most helpful for visiting."

34. "We asked Master Gotama about the preservation of truth, and

Master Gotama answered about the preservation of truth; we approve

of and accept that answer, and so we are satisfied. We asked Master

Gotama about the discovery of truth, and Master Gotama answered

about the discovery of truth; we approve of and accept that answer,

and so we are satisfied. We asked Master Gotama about the final

arrival at truth, and Master Gotama answered about the final arrival at

truth; we approve of and accept that answer, and so we are satisfied.

We asked Master Gotama about the thing most helpful for the final

arrival at truth, and Master Gotama answered about the thing most

helpful for the final arrival at truth; we approve of and accept that

answer, and so we are satisfied. Whatever we asked Master Gotama

about, that he has answered us; we approve of and accept that answer,

and so we are satisfied. Formerly, Master Gotama, we used to think:

'Who are these bald-headed ascetics, these dark menial offspring of

the Lord's feet, that they would understand the Dhamma?'

But Mas-

ter Gotama has indeed inspired in me love for ascetics, confidence in

ascetics, reverence for ascetics.

35. "Magnificent, Master Gotama! Magnificent, Master Gotama!...

[as in Text 111,2] ... From today let Master Gotama remember me as a

lay follower who has gone to him for refuge for life."

(from MN 95: Canki Sutta; II168-77)

IV The Happiness Visible

in This Present Life

'IP • "-,,. :

INTRODUCTION

Is it the case, as some scholars hold, that the Buddha's original message

was exclusively one of world-transcending liberation, with little rele-

vance for people stuck in the routines of worldly life? Did the ancient

Buddhists believe that it was only in the monastery that the real prac-

tice of the Dhamma began and that only those who left the world were

considered proper receptacles of the teaching? Did the Buddha's teach-

ings for the laity have no more than a token significance? Were they

mainly injunctions to acquire merit by offering material support to the

monastic order and its members so that they could become monks and

nuns (preferably monks) in future lives and then get down to the real

practice?

At certain periods, in almost all traditions, Buddhists have lent sup-

port to the assumptions that underlie these questions. They have

spurned concern with the present life and dismissed the world as a

valley of tears, a deceptive illusion, convinced that the sign of spiri-

tual maturity is an exclusive focus on emancipation from the round of

birth and death. Monks have sometimes displayed little interest in

showing those still stuck in the world how to use the wisdom of the

Dhamma to deal with the problems of ordinary life. Householders in

turn have seen little hope of spiritual progress in their own chosen

mode of life and have thus resigned themselves merely to gaining

merit by offering material support to the monks.

While the Nikayas reveal the crown of the Buddha's teachings to lie

in the path to final release from suffering, it would be a mistake to

reduce the teachings, so diverse in the original sources, to their tran-

scendent pinnacle. We must again recall the statement that a Buddha

arises "for the welfare of the multitude, for the happiness of the multi-

tude ... out of compassion for the world, for the good, welfare, and hap-

piness of devas and humans" (p. 50). The function of a Buddha is to

discover, realize, and proclaim the Dhamma in its full range and depth,

nd this involves a comprehensive understanding of the varied appli-

cations of the Dhamma in all its multiple dimensions. A Buddha not

107

108 In the Buddha's Words

only penetrates to the unconditioned state of perfect bliss that lies

beyond samsara, outside the pale of birth, aging, and death; he not

only proclaims the path to full enlightenment and final liberation; but

he also illuminates the many ways the Dhamma applies to the complex

conditions of human life for people still immersed in the world.

The Dhamma, in its broadest sense, is the immanent, invariable

order of the universe in which truth, lawful regularity, and virtue are

inextricably merged. This cosmic Dhamma is reflected in the human

mind as the aspiration for truth, spiritual beauty, and goodness; it is

expressed in human conduct as wholesome bodily, verbal, and mental

action. The Dhamma has institutional embodiments as well as expres-

sions in the lives of individuals who look upon it as their source of

guidance in the proper conduct of life. These embodiments are both

secular and spiritual. Buddhist tradition sees the responsibility for

upholding the Dhamma in the secular domain as falling to the leg-

endary wheel-turning monarch (raja cakkavatti). The wheel-turning

monarch is the benevolent ruler who governs his kingdom in accor-

dance with the highest ethical norms (dhammiko dhammaraja) and

thereby peacefully unites the world under a reign of universal justice

and prosperity. As Text IV,1(D shows, within the spiritual domain, the

Buddha is the counterpart of the wheel-turning monarch. Like the lat-

ter, the Buddha relies on the Dhamma and reveres the Dhamma, but

whereas the wheel-turning monarch relies upon the Dhamma as prin-

ciple of righteousness to rule his kingdom, the Buddha relies upon the

Dhamma as ethical and spiritual norm to teach and transform human

beings and guide them toward proper conduct of body, speech, and

mind. Neither the wheel-turning monarch nor the Buddha creates the

Dhamma they uphold, yet neither can perform their respective func-

tions without it; for the Dhamma is the objective, impersonal, ever-

existent principle of order that serves as the source and standard for

their respective policies and promulgations.

As the king of the Dhamma, the Buddha takes up the task of promot-

ing the true good, welfare, and happiness of the world. He does so by

teaching the people of the world how to live in accordance with the

Dhamma and behave in such a way that they can attain realization of

the same liberating Dhamma that he realized through his enlighten-

ment. The Pali commentaries demonstrate the broad scope of the

Dhamma by distinguishing three types of benefit that the Buddha's

The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 109

teaching is intended to promote, graded hierarchically according to

their relative merit:

1. welfare and happiness directly visible in this present life (dittha-

dhamma-hitasukha), attained by fulfilling one's moral commitments

and social responsibilities;

2. welfare and happiness pertaining to the next life (samparayika-

hitasukha), attained by engaging in meritorious deeds;

3. the ultimate good or supreme goal (paramattha), Nibbana, final

release from the cycle of rebirths, attained by developing the

Noble Eightfold Path.

While many Western writers on Early Buddhism have focused on

this last aspect as almost exclusively representing the Buddha's origi-

nal teaching, a balanced presentation should give consideration to all

three aspects. Therefore, in this chapter and those to follow, we will be

exploring texts from the Nikayas that illustrate each of these three

facets of the Dhamma.

The present chapter includes a variety of texts on the Buddha's teach-

ings that pertain to the happiness directly visible in this present life.

The most comprehensive Nikaya text in this genre is the Sigalaka Sutta

(DN 31, also known as the Sihgalovada Sutta), sometimes called "The

Layperson's Code of Discipline." The heart of this sutta is the section on

"worshipping the six directions"—Text IV,1(2)—in which the Buddha

freely reinterprets an ancient Indian ritual, infusing it with a new ethi-

cal meaning. The practice of "worshipping the six directions," as

explained by the Buddha, presupposes that society is sustained by a

network of interlocking relationships that bring coherence to the social

order when its members fulfill their reciprocal duties and responsibil-

ities in a spirit of kindness, sympathy, and good will. The six basic social

relationships that the Buddha draws upon to fill out his metaphor are:

parents and children, teacher and pupils, husband and wife, friend and

friend, employer and workers, lay follower and religious guides. Each

is considered one of the six directions in relation to its counterpart. For

a young man like Sigalaka, his parents are the east, his teachers the

south, his wife and children the west, his friends the north, his work-

ers the nadir, and religious guides the zenith. With his customary sense

of systematic concision, the Buddha ascribes to each member of each

pair five obligations with respect to his or her counterpart; when each

110 In the Buddha's Words

member fulfills these obligations, the corresponding "direction" comes

to be "at peace and free from fear." "Thus, for Early Buddhism, the

social stability and security that contribute to human happiness are

most effectively achieved when every member of society fulfills the

various duties that befall them as determined by their social relation-

ships. Each person rises above the demands of narrow self-interest and

develops a sincere, large-hearted concern for the welfare of others and

the greater good of the whole."

From this general code of lay Buddhist ethics, we turn to texts that

offer more specific points of advice, beginning with a selection of suttas

on "The Family." This has separate sections on "Parents and Children"

(IV,2(1)) and "Husbands and Wives" (IV,2(2)). In keeping with the

norms of Indian society—in fact, of virtually all traditional agrarian

societies—the Buddha regards the family as the basic unit of social

integration and acculturation. It is especially the close, loving relation-

ship between parents and children that fosters the virtues and sense of

humane responsibility essential to a cohesive social order. Within the

family, these values are transmitted from one generation to the next,

and thus a harmonious society is highly dependent on harmonious

relations between parents and children. The Buddha emphasizes filial

piety—Text IV,2(l)(a)—and the gratitude of children to their parents,

a debt they can adequately repay only by establishing their parents in

the proper Dhamma—Text IV,2(l)(b).

Wholesome relations between parents and children depend in turn

upon the mutual affection and respect of husband and wife, and thus the

Buddha also offers guidelines for proper relationships between married

couples. These again emphasize a common commitment to ethical con-

duct and spiritual ideals. Of special interest to us, at a time when many

marriages end so soon in divorce, is the Buddha's advice to the loving

couple Nakulapita and Nakulamata—Text IV,2(2)(b)—on how the love

between a husband and his wife can be sustained so strongly that they

can be reunited in their future lives. This discourse also shows that far

from demanding that his lay disciples spurn the desires of the world, the

Buddha was ready to show those still under the sway of worldly desire

how to obtain the objects of their desire. The one requirement he laid

down was that the fulfillment of desire be regulated by ethical principles.

Next come a number of texts dealing with different aspects of house-

hold life united by an emphasis on right livelihood. Two characteristics

The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 111

of the Buddha's injunctions to his lay followers regarding the pursuit

of mundane happiness stand out from these texts.

First, in seeking "the good visible in this present life," the lay fol-

lower should consistently adhere to principles of right conduct, espe-

cially to the five precepts and the rules of right livelihood. Thus, for

example, he stipulates that wealth must be "acquired by energetic

striving ... righteous wealth righteously gained"—Text IV,3. Again, he

asks his lay followers to use the wealth they obtain not only to gratify

themselves but also to benefit their dependents and others who live on

charity, particularly virtuous ascetics and brahmins—Text IV,4(2).

Second, the lay follower should not rest content with the mere pur-

suit of temporal well-being and happiness but should also seek the

well-being and happiness pertaining to the future life. This is to be

done by fostering those qualities that lead to a happy rebirth and the

attainment of Nibbana. According to Texts IV,3 and IV,5, the principal

virtues a lay follower should possess, leading to future welfare, are:

(1) faith (in the Buddha as the Enlightened One), (2) moral discipline (as

unbroken observance of the five precepts), (3) generosity (as applica-

tion to charity, giving, and sharing), and (4) wisdom (as insight into the

arising and passing away of phenomena). For Early Buddhism, the

ideal householder is not merely a devout supporter of the monastic

order but a noble person who has attained at least the first of the four

stages of realization, the fruition of stream-entry (sotapatti).

Finally, with section 6, we come to a selection of texts on "the Com-

munity." I use this word to refer broadly to both the Sahgha, the

monastic order, and the civil society in which any branch of the monas-

tic order must be rooted. From the Nikayas, it is clear that while the

Buddha principally aimed at guiding people toward moral and spiri-

tual progress, he was fully aware that their capacity for moral and spir-

itual development depends upon the material conditions of the society

in which they live. He acutely realized that when people are mired in

poverty and oppressed by hunger and want, they will find it hard to

hold to a path of moral rectitude. The sheer pain of hunger, and the

need to ward off the elements and provide for their families, will com-

pel them to stoop to types of behavior they would avoid if they could

obtain fair employment and adequate remuneration for their services.

Thus he saw that the provision of economic justice is integral to social

harmony and political stability.

112 In the Buddha's Words

The first two texts included here prescribe two sets of guidelines for

the monastic order. Both are excerpts from a long discourse the Buddha

spoke shortly after the death of Mahavira, the leader of the Jains.

According to the Nikayas, following their leader's death, the Jain

monastic order was already beginning to split up, and the Buddha

must have felt compelled to lay down guidelines to protect his own

order from sharing the same fate after his passing. Text IV,6(1) enu-

merates six qualities that lead to quarrels and disputes, which the

monks should be wary of and strive to eliminate when they discover

them within themselves. Although these guidelines are laid down for

the monks, they can easily be given a wider application to any organ-

ization, secular or religious, for it is the same six factors that lie at the

bottom of all conflicts. The positive counterpart to this set of caution-

ary guidelines is Text IV,6(2), which enumerates "six principles of cor-

diality" that lead to love, respect, and harmony among the members of

the community. Again, with appropriate adaptation, these principles-

loving acts of body, speech, and mind; sharing of possessions; com-

mon observance of precepts; and unity of views—can be given an

extended application beyond a monastic order to the wider commu-

nity. The same sutta provides more detailed guidelines for preserving

harmony in the monastic order after the Buddha's death, but these deal

with aspects of monastic discipline too specialized for the present

anthology.

Text IV,6(3), a long excerpt from the Assalayana Sutta, captures the

Buddha in debate with a precocious brahmin pundit about the brah-

mins' claims on behalf of the caste system. In the Buddha's age the

caste system was only beginning to take shape in northeast India and

had not yet spawned the countless subdivisions and rigid regulations

that were to manacle Indian society through the centuries. Society was

divided into four broad social classes: the brahmins, who performed

the priestly functions prescribed in the Vedas; the khattiyas, the nobles,

warriors, and administrators; the vessas, the merchants and agricultur-

alists; and the suddas, the menials and serfs. There were also those out-

side the pale of the four main classes, who were regarded as even lower

than the suddas. From the Nikayas it appears that the brahmins, while

vested with authority in religious matters, had not yet attained the

unchallengeable hegemony they were to gain after the appearance of

such works as the Laws of Manu, which laid down the fixed rules of

The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 113

the caste system. They had, however, already embarked on their drive

for domination over the rest of Indian society and did so by propagat-

ing the thesis that brahmins are the highest caste, the divinely blessed

offspring of Brahma who are alone capable of purification.

Contrary to certain popular notions, the Buddha did not agitate for

the abolition of the Indian class system and attempt to establish a class-

less society. Within the Sahgha, however, all caste distinctions were

abrogated from the moment of ordination. People from any of the four

social classes who went forth under the Buddha renounced their class

titles and prerogatives, becoming known simply as disciples of the

Sakyan son (that is, of the Buddha, who was from the Sakyan clan).

Whenever the Buddha and his disciples confronted the brahmins'

claim to superiority, they argued vigorously against them. As our text

shows, the Buddha maintained that all such claims were groundless.

Purification, he contended, was the result of conduct, not of birth, and

was thus accessible to those of all four castes. The Buddha even

stripped the term "brahmin" of its hereditary accretions, and hearken-

ing back to its original connotation of holy man, defined the true brah-

min as the arahant (see MN 98, not included in this anthology).

The next two selections suggest guidelines for political administra-

tion. During the Buddha's time two distinct forms of government pre-

vailed among the states of northern India in which the Buddha moved

and taught, monarchical kingdoms and tribal republics. As a spiritual

teacher, the Buddha did not prefer one type of government to the other,

nor did he actively interfere in affairs of state. But his followers

included leaders from both types of state, and thus he occasionally

offered them guidance intended to ensure that they would govern their

realms in accordance with ethical norms.

The opening scene of the Mahaparinibbana Sutta, the narrative of the

Buddha's last days—Text IV,6(4)—gives us a glimpse into this tumul-

tuous phase of Indian history when Magadha, the rising star among

the northern monarchies, was expanding in influence and absorbing its

neighboring tribal republics. In the passage reproduced here we see

King Ajatasattu, the ruler of Magadha, setting his sights on the Vajjian

confederacy, the largest and best organized of the tribal republics. When

the sutta opens, he sends his chief minister to inquire from the Buddha

whether he has any chance of success in waging war against the

Vajjians. The Buddha questions Ananda about seven conditions of

114 In the Buddha's Words

social stability that he had earlier taught the Vajjians, concluding that

"as long as they keep to these seven principles, as long as these prin-

ciples remain in force, the Vajjians may be expected to prosper and not

decline." He then convenes a meeting of the monks and teaches them

seven analogous principles of stability applicable to the monastic order.

Since the eventual triumph of the monarchical type of government

seemed inevitable, the Buddha sought to establish a model of king-

ship that could curb the arbitrary exercise of power and subordinate

the king to a higher authority. He did so by setting up the ideal of the

"wheel-turning monarch," the righteous king who rules in compliance

with the Dhamma, the impersonal law of righteousness (see Text

IV,1(1)). The Dhamma that he obeys is the ethical basis for his rule.

Symbolized by the sacred wheel-treasure, the Dhamma enables him

to subdue without force all the nations of the world and establish a

universal reign of peace and virtue based on observance of the five

precepts—see Text IV,6(5).

The wheel-turning monarch rules for the welfare and happiness of

his subjects and extends protection to all within his realm, even to the

birds and beasts. Among his duties is to prevent crime from erupting

in his kingdom, and to keep the kingdom safe from crime he must give

wealth to those in need, for in the view of the Nikayas poverty is the

breeding ground of criminality. This theme, mentioned among the

duties of the wheel-turning monarch in Text IV,6(5), is elaborated in

Text IV,6(6). We here see a wise chaplain advise a king that the correct

way to end the plague of theft and brigandage in his realm is not by

imposing harsher punishments and stricter law enforcement, but by

giving the citizens the means to earn their living. Once the people enjoy

a satisfactory standard of living, they will lose all interest in harming

others, and the country will enjoy peace and tranquillity.

IV. THE HAPPINESS VISIBLE

IN THIS PRESENT LIFE

1. UPHOLDING THE DHAMMA IN SOCIETY

(1) The King of the Dhamma

The Blessed One said: "Monks, even a wheel-turning monarch, a just

and righteous king, does not govern his realm without a co-regent."

When he had spoken, a certain monk addressed the Blessed One

thus: "But who, venerable sir, is the co-regent of the wheel-turning

monarch, the just and righteous king?"

"It is the Dhamma, the law of righteousness, O monk," replied the

Blessed One.

"In this case, the wheel-turning monarch, the just and righteous

king, relying on the Dhamma, honoring the Dhamma, esteeming and

respecting it, with the Dhamma as his standard, banner, and sover-

eign, provides lawful protection, shelter, and safety for his own

dependents. He provides lawful protection, shelter, and safety for the

khattiyas attending on him; for his army, for the brahmins and house-

holders, for the inhabitants of town and countryside, for ascetics and

brahmins, for the beasts and birds.

"A wheel-turning monarch, a just and righteous king, who thus pro-

vides lawful protection, shelter, and safety for all, is the one who rules

by Dhamma only. And that rule cannot be overthrown by any hostile

human being.

"Even so, O monk, the Tathagata, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlight-

ened One, the just and righteous king of the Dhamma, relying on the

Dhamma, honoring the Dhamma, esteeming and respecting it, with

the Dhamma as his standard, banner, and sovereign, provides lawful

protection, shelter, and safety in regard to action by body, speech, and

mind. [He teaches thus:] 'Such bodily action should be undertaken and

such should not be undertaken. Such verbal action should be under-

taken and such should not be undertaken. Such mental action should

be undertaken and such should not be undertaken.'

115

116 In the Buddha's Words

"The Tathagata, the Arahant, the Fully Enlightened One, the just and

righteous king of the Dhamma, who thus provides lawful protection,

shelter, and safety in regard to action by body, speech, and mind, is

the one who turns the incomparable wheel of the Dhamma in accor-

dance with the Dhamma only. And that wheel of the Dhamma cannot

be turned back by any ascetic or brahmin, by any deva or Mara or

Brahma or by anyone in the world."

(AN 3:14; 1109-10)

(2) Worshipping the Six Directions

1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling

at Rajagaha, at the Bamboo Grove, in the Squirrels' Sanctuary. Then

Sigalaka the householder's son, having got up early and gone out of

Rajagaha, was paying homage, with wet clothes and hair and with

joined palms, to the different directions: to the east, the south, the west,

the north, the nadir, and the zenith.

2. And the Blessed One, having risen early and dressed, took his robe

and bowl and went to Rajagaha for alms. And seeing Sigalaka paying

homage to the different directions, he said: "Householder's son, why

have you got up early to pay homage to the different directions?"

"Venerable sir, my father, when he was dying, told me to do so. And

so, out of respect for my father's words, which I revere, honor, and

hold sacred, I have got up early to pay homage in this way to the six

directions."

"But, householder's son, that is not the right way to pay homage to

the six directions according to the Noble One's discipline."

"Well, venerable sir, how should one pay homage to the six direc-

tions according to the Noble One's discipline? It would be good if the

Blessed One would teach me the proper way to pay homage to the six

directions according to the Noble One's discipline."

"Then listen and attend carefully, householder's son, I will speak."

"Yes, venerable sir," Sigalaka said. The Blessed One said this: ...

27. "And how, householder's son, does the noble disciple protect

the six directions? These six things are to be regarded as the six direc-

tions. The east denotes mother and father. The south denotes teachers.

The west denotes wife and children. The north denotes friends and

The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 117

companions. The nadir denotes servants, workers, and helpers. The

zenith denotes ascetics and brahmins.

28. "There are five ways in which a son should minister to his mother

and father as the eastern direction. [He should think:] 'Having been

support^ by them, I will support them. I will perform their duties for

them. I will keep up the family tradition. I will be worthy of my her-

itage. After my parents' deaths I will distribute gifts on their behalf.'

And there are five ways in which the parents, so ministered to by their

son as the eastern direction, will reciprocate: they will restrain him

from evil, support him in doing good, teach him some skill, find him

a suitable wife, and, in due time, hand over his inheritance to him. In

this way the eastern direction is covered, making it at peace and free

from fear.

29. "There are five ways in which pupils should minister to their

teachers as the southern direction: by rising to greet them, by waiting

on them, by being attentive, by serving them, by mastering the skills

they teach. And there are five ways in which their teachers, thus min-

istered to by their pupils as the southern direction, will reciprocate:

they will give thorough instruction, make sure they have grasped what

they should have duly grasped, give them a thorough grounding in

all skills, recommend them to their friends and colleagues, and pro-

vide them with security in all directions. In this way the southern direc-

tion is covered, making it at peace and free from fear.

30. "There are five ways in which a husband should minister to his

wife as the western direction: by honoring her, by not disparaging her,

by not being unfaithful to her, by giving authority to her, by providing

her with adornments. And there are five ways in which a wife, thus

ministered to by her husband as the western direction, will recipro-

cate: by properly organizing her work, by being kind to the servants,

by not being unfaithful, by protecting stores, and by being skillful and

diligent in all she has to do. In this way the western direction is cov-

ered, making it at peace and free from fear.

31. "There are five ways in which a man should minister to his friends

and companions as the northern direction: by gifts, by kindly words, by

looking after their welfare, by treating them like himself, and by keep-

ing his word. And there are five ways in which friends and companions,

thus ministered to by a man as the northern direction, will reciprocate:

118 In the Buddha's Words

by looking after him when he is inattentive, by looking after his prop-

erty when he is inattentive, by being a refuge when he is afraid, by not

deserting him when he is in trouble, and by showing concern for his

children. In this way the northern direction is covered, making it at

peace and free from fear.

32. "There are five ways in which a master should minister to his

servants and workers as the nadir: by arranging their work according

to their strength, by supplying them with food and wages, by looking

after them when they are ill, by sharing special delicacies with them,

and by letting them off work at the right time. And there are five ways

in which servants and workers, thus ministered to by their master as

the nadir, will reciprocate: they will get up before him, go to bed after

him, take only what they are given, do their work properly, and be

bearers of his praise and good repute. In this way the nadir is covered,

making it at peace and free from fear.

33. "There are five ways in which a man should minister to ascetics

and brahmins as the zenith: by kindness in bodily deed, speech, and

thought, by keeping open house for them, and by supplying their bod-

ily needs. And the ascetics and brahmins, thus ministered to by him as

the zenith, will reciprocate in five ways: they will restrain him from

evil, encourage him to do good, be benevolently compassionate toward

him, teach him what he has not heard, and point out to him the way to

heaven. In this way the zenith is covered, making it at peace and free

from fear."

(from DN 31: Sigalaka Sutta; III 180-81,187-91)

2. THE FAMILY

(1) Parents and Children

(a) Respect for Parents

"Monks, those families dwell with Brahma where at home the parents

are respected by their children. Those families dwell with the ancient

teachers where at home the parents are respected by their children.

Those families dwell with the ancient deities where at home the par-

ents are respected by the children. Those families dwell with the holy

ones where at home the parents are respected by their children.

The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 119

"'Brahma/ monks, is a term for father and mother. 'The ancient

teachers' is a term for father and mother. 'The ancient deities' is a term

for father and mother. 'The holy ones' is a term for father and mother.

And why? Parents are of great help to their children; they bring them

up, feed them, and show them the world."

(AN

4:63;

II 70)

(b) Repaying One's Parents

"Monks, I declare that there are two persons one can never repay. What

two? One's mother and father.

"Even if one should carry about one's mother on one shoulder and

one's father on the other, and while doing so should live a hundred

years, reach the age of a hundred years; and if one should attend to

them by anointing them with balms, by massaging, bathing, and rub-

bing their limbs, and they should even void their excrements there—

even by that would one not do enough for one's parents, nor would

one repay them. Even if one were to establish one's parents as the

supreme lords and rulers over this earth so rich in the seven treasures,

one would not do enough for them, nor would one repay them. For

what reason? Parents are of great help to their children; they bring

them up, feed them, and show them the world.

"But, monks, one who encourages his unbelieving parents, settles

and establishes them in faith; who encourages his immoral parents,

settles and establishes them in moral discipline; who encourages his

stingy parents, settles and establishes them in generosity; who encour-

ages his ignorant parents, settles and establishes them in wisdom—

such a one, monks, does enough for his parents: he repays them and

more than repays them for what they have done."

(AN 2: iv, 2; I 61-62)

(2) Husbands and Wives

(a) Different Kinds of Marriages

On one occasion the Blessed One was traveling along the highway

between Madhura and Veranja, and a number of householders and

their wives were traveling along the same road. Then the Blessed One

left the road and sat down on a seat at the foot of a tree. The household-

ers and their wives saw the Blessed One sitting there and approached

120 In the Buddha's Words

him. Having paid homage to him, they sat down to one side, and the

Blessed One then said to them:

"Householders, there are these four kinds of marriages. What four?

A wretch lives together with a wretch; a wretch lives together with a

goddess; a god lives together with a wretch; a god lives together with

a goddess.

"And how does a wretch live together with a wretch? Here, house-

holders, the husband is one who destroys life, takes what is not given,

engages in sexual misconduct, speaks falsely, and indulges in wines,

liquor, and intoxicants, the basis for negligence; he is immoral, of bad

character; he dwells at home with a heart obsessed by the stain of

stinginess; he abuses and reviles ascetics and brahmins. And his wife

is exactly the same in all respects. It is in such a way that a wretch lives

together with a wretch.

"And how does a wretch live together with a goddess? Here, house-

holders, the husband is one who destroys life ... who abuses and

reviles ascetics and brahmins. But his wife is one who abstains from the

destruction of life ... from wines, liquor, and intoxicants; she is virtu-

ous, of good character; she dwells at home with a heart free from the

stain of stinginess; she does not abuse or revile ascetics and brahmins.

It is in such a way that a wretch lives together with a goddess.

"And how does a god live together with a wretch? Here, household-

ers, the husband is one who abstains from the destruction of life ...

who does not abuse or revile ascetics and brahmins. But his wife is one

who destroys life ... who abuses and reviles ascetics and brahmins. It

is in such a way that a god lives together with a wretch.

"And how does a god live together with a goddess? Here, house-

holders, the husband is one who abstains from the destruction of life

... from wines, liquor, and intoxicants; he is virtuous, of good charac-

ter; he dwells at home with a heart free from the stain of stinginess; he

does not abuse or revile ascetics and brahmins. And his wife is exactly

the same in all respects. It is in such a way that a god lives together

with a goddess.

"These, householders, are the four kinds of marriages."

(AN 4:53; II57-59)

The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 111

(b) How to Be United in Future Lives

On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling among the Bhagga peo-

ple, near Sumsumaragiri, in the Deer Park of the Bhesakala Grove. One

morning the Blessed One dressed, took his upper robe and bowl, and

went to the dwelling of the householder Nakulapita.

Having arrived

there, he sat down on the seat prepared for him. Then the householder

Nakulapita and the housewife Nakulamata approached the Blessed

One and, after paying homage to him, sat down to one side. So seated,

the householder Nakulapita said to the Blessed One:

"Venerable sir, ever since the young housewife Nakulamata was

brought home to me when I too was still young, I am not aware of hav-

ing wronged her even in my thoughts, still less in my deeds. Our wish

is to be in one another's sight so long as this life lasts and in the future

life as well."

Then Nakulamata the housewife addressed the Blessed One thus:

"Venerable sir, ever since I was taken to the home of my young hus-

band Nakulapita, while being a young girl myself, I am not aware of

having wronged him even in my thoughts, still less in my deeds. Our

wish is to be in one another's sight so long as this life lasts and in the

future life as well."

Then the Blessed One spoke thus: "If, householders, both wife and

husband wish to be in one another's sight so long as this life lasts and

in the future life as well, they should have the same faith, the same

moral discipline, the same generosity, the same wisdom; then they will

be in one another's sight so long as this life lasts and in the future life

as well."

When both are faithful and generous,

Self-restrained, of righteous living,

They come together as husband and wife

Full of love for each other.

Many blessings come their way,

They dwell together in happiness,

Their enemies are left dejected,

When both are equal in virtue.

122 In the Buddha's Words

Having lived by Dhamma in this world,

The same in virtue and observance,

They rejoice after death in the deva-world,

Enjoying abundant happiness.

(AN 4:55; II 61-62)

On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at Savatthi in Jeta's

Grove, Anathapindika's monastery. In the morning the Blessed One

dressed, took his bowl and robe, and went to Anathapindika's house,

where he sat down in a seat prepared for him. On that occasion peo-

ple in the house were making an uproar and a racket. The householder

Anathapindika approached the Blessed One, paid homage to him, and

sat down to one side.

The Blessed One then said to him: "Why are

people in your house making this uproar and racket, householder?

One would think they were fishermen making a haul of fish."

"That, venerable sir, is our daughter-in-law Sujata. She is rich and

has been brought here from a rich family. She does not obey her father-

in-law and mother-in-law, nor her husband. She does not even honor,

respect, esteem, and venerate the Blessed One."

Then the Blessed One called the daughter-in-law Sujata, saying,

"Come, Sujata."

"Yes, venerable sir," she replied, and she went to the Blessed One,

paid homage to him, and sat down to one side. The Blessed One then

said to her: "There are these seven kinds of wives, Sujata. What seven?

One like a slayer, one like a thief, one like a tyrant, one like a mother,

one like a sister, one like a friend, and one like a handmaid. These are

the seven kinds of wives. Now which of these seven are you?"

"I do not understand in detail the meaning of the Blessed One's brief

statement. It would be good, venerable sir, if the Blessed One would

teach me the Dhamma in such a way that I might understand the

meaning in detail."

"Then listen, Sujata, and attend carefully. I will speak."

"Yes, venerable sir," Sujata replied. The Blessed One said this:

"With hateful mind, cold and heartless,

Lusting for others, despising her husband;

Who seeks to kill the one who bought her—

Such a wife is called a slayer.

The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 123

"When her husband acquires wealth

By his craft or trade or farm work,

She tries to filch a little for herself—

Such a wife is called a thief.

"The slothful glutton, bent on idling,

Harsh, fierce, rough in speech,

A woman who bullies her own supporter—

Such a wife is called a tyrant.

"One who is always helpful and kind,

Who guards her husband as a mother her son,

Who carefully protects the wealth he earns—

Such a wife is called a mother.

"She who holds her husband in high regard

As younger sister holds the elder born,

Who humbly submits to her husband's will—

Such a wife is called a sister.

"One who rejoices at her husband's sight

As one friend might welcome another,

Well raised, virtuous, devoted—

Such a wife is called a friend.

"One without anger, afraid of punishment,

Who bears with her husband free of hate,

Who humbly submits to her husband's will—

Such a wife is called a handmaid.

"The types of wives here called a slayer,

A thief, and the wife like a tyrant,

These kinds of wives, with the body's breakup,

Will be reborn deep in hell.

"But wives like mother, sister, friend,

And the wife called a handmaid,

Steady in virtue, long restrained,

With the body's breakup go to heaven.

124 In the Buddha's Words

"These, Sujata, are the seven kinds of wives. Now which of these

are you?"

"Beginning today, venerable sir, you should consider me a wife who

is like a handmaid."

(AN 7:59; IV 91-94)

3. PRESENT WELFARE, FUTURE WELFARE

On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling among the Koliyans

where there was a market town of the Koliyans named Kakkarapatta.

Then the Koliyan family man Dighajanu approached the Blessed One,

paid homage to him, and sat down to one side. So seated, he said to the

Blessed One:

"Venerable sir, we are laypeople who enjoy sensual pleasures,

dwelling at home in a bed crowded with children, enjoying fine san-

dalwood, wearing garlands, scents, and unguents, accepting gold and

silver. Let the Blessed One teach the Dhamma to us in a way that will

lead to our welfare and happiness both in the present life and in the

future life as well."

"There are, Byagghapajja, four things that lead to the welfare and

happiness of a family man in this very life. What four? The accom-

plishment of persistent effort, the accomplishment of protection, good

friendship, and balanced living.

"And what is the accomplishment of persistent effort? Here, Byag-

ghapajja, whatever may be the means by which a family man earns his

living—whether by farming, trade, cattle raising, archery or civil serv-

ice, or by some other craft—he is skillful and diligent; he investigates

the appropriate means, and is able to act and arrange everything prop-

erly. This is called the accomplishment of persistent effort.

"And what is the accomplishment of protection? Here, Byaggha-

pajja, a family man sets up protection and guard over the wealth

acquired by energetic striving, amassed by the strength of his arms,

earned by the sweat of his brow, righteous wealth righteously gained,

thinking: 'How can I prevent kings and bandits from taking this away,

fire from burning it, floods from sweeping it off, and unloved heirs

from taking it?' This is called the accomplishment of protection.

"And what is good friendship? Here, Byagghapajja, in whatever

The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 125

village- or town a family man dwells, he associates with householders

or their sons, whether young or old, who are of mature virtue, accom-

plished in faith, moral discipline, generosity, and wisdom; he converses

with them and engages in discussions with them. He emulates them in

regard to their accomplishment in faith, moral discipline, generosity,

and wisdom. This is called good friendship.

"And what is balanced living? Here, Byagghapajja, a family man

knows his income and expenditures and leads a balanced life, neither

extravagant nor miserly, so that his income exceeds his expenditures

rather than the reverse. Just as a goldsmith or his apprentice, holding

up a scale, knows, 'By so much it has dipped down, by so much it has

tilted up/ so a family man leads a balanced life.

"The wealth thus amassed has four sources of dissipation: woman-

izing, drunkenness, gambling, and evil friendship. Just as in the case

of a tank with four inlets and outlets, if one should close the inlets and

open the outlets, and there would not be adequate rainfall, a decrease

rather than an increase of the water could be expected in the tank, so

these four things bring about the dissipation of amassed wealth.

"Similarly, there are four sources for the increase of amassed wealth:

abstinence from womanizing, from drunkenness, from gambling, and

from evil friendship. Just as in the case of a tank with four inlets and

outlets, if one should open the inlets and close the outlets, and there

would be adequate rainfall, an increase rather than a decrease of the

water could be expected in the tank, so these four things bring about

the increase of amassed wealth.

"These four things, Byagghapajja, lead to a family man's welfare and

happiness in the present life.

"Four other things lead to a family man's welfare and happiness in

the future life. What four? Accomplishment in faith, moral discipline,

generosity, and wisdom.

"And how is a family man accomplished in faith? Here, Byaggha-

pajja, a family man has faith; he places faith in the enlightenment of the

Tathagata: 'So the Blessed One is an arahant, perfectly enlightened,

accomplished in true knowledge and conduct, fortunate, knower of

the world, unsurpassed leader of persons to be tamed, teacher of devas

and humans, the Enlightened One, the Blessed One.' In this way a fam-

ily man is accomplished in faith.

"And how is a family man accomplished in moral discipline? Here,

126 In the Buddha's Words

Byagghapajja, a family man abstains from the destruction of life, from

stealing, from sexual misconduct, from false speech, and from wines,

liquors, and intoxicants, the basis for negligence. In this way a family

man is accomplished in moral discipline.

"And how is a family man accomplished in generosity? Here, Byag-

ghapajja, a family man dwells at home with a mind devoid of the stain

of stinginess, freely generous, open-handed, delighting in relinquish-

ment, one devoted to charity, delighting in giving and sharing. In this

way a family man is accomplished in generosity.

"And how is a family man accomplished in wisdom? Here, Byag-

ghapajja, a family man possesses the wisdom that sees into the arising

and passing away of phenomena, that is noble and penetrative and

leads to the complete destruction of suffering. In this way a family man

is accomplished in wisdom.

"These four things, Byagghapajja, lead to a family man's welfare and

happiness in the future life."

(AN 8:54; IV 281-85)

4. RIGHT LIVELIHOOD

(1) Avoiding Wrong Livelihood

"These five trades, O monks, should not be taken up by a lay follower:

trading in weapons, trading in living beings, trading in meat, trading

in intoxicants, trading in poison."

(AN 5:177; III 208)

(2) The Proper Use of Wealth

[The Blessed One addressed the householder Anathapindika:] "With

the wealth acquired by energetic striving, amassed by the strength of

his arms, earned by the sweat of his brow, righteous wealth righteously

gained, the noble disciple undertakes four worthy deeds. What four?

"With the wealth thus gained he makes himself happy and pleased

and properly maintains himself in happiness; he makes his parents

happy and pleased and properly maintains them in happiness; he

makes his wife and children, his slaves, workers, and servants happy

and pleased and properly maintains them in happiness; he makes his

The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 127

friends and colleagues happy and pleased and properly maintains

them in happiness. This is the first case of wealth gone to good use,

fruitfully applied and used for a worthy cause.

"Further, householder, with the wealth thus gained the noble disci-

ple makes provisions against the losses that might arise on account of

fire and floods, kings and bandits and unloved heirs; he makes him-

self secure against them. This is the second case of wealth gone to

good use....

"Further, householder, with the wealth thus gained the noble disci-

ple makes the five kinds of offerings: to relatives, guests, ancestors, the

king, and the devas. This is the third case of wealth gone to good use....

"Further, householder, with the wealth thus gained the noble disciple

establishes a lofty offering of alms to those ascetics and brahmins who

refrain from vanity and negligence, who are settled in patience and gen-

tleness, who are devoted to taming themselves, to calming themselves,

and to attaining Nibbana—an offering that is heavenly, resulting in hap-

piness, conducive to heaven. This is the fourth case of wealth gone to

good use, fruitfully employed and used for a worthy cause.

"These, householder, are the four worthy deeds that the noble disci-

ple undertakes with the wealth acquired by energetic striving, amassed

by the strength of his arms, earned by the sweat of his brow, righteous

wealth righteously gained.

"For anyone whose wealth is expended on other things apart from

these four worthy deeds, that wealth is said to have gone to waste, to

have been squandered and used frivolously. But for anyone whose

wealth is expended on these four worthy deeds, that wealth is said to

have gone to good use, to have been fruitfully employed and used for

a worthy cause."

(AN 4:61; II 65-68)

(3) A Family Man's Happiness

The Blessed One said to the householder Anathapindika: "There are,

householder, these four kinds of happiness which may be achieved by

a layperson who enjoys sensual pleasures, depending on time and

occasion. What four? The happiness of possession, the happiness of

enjoyment, the happiness of freedom from debt, and the happiness of

blamelessness.

128 In the Buddha's Words

"And what, householder, is the happiness of possession? Here, a

family man possesses wealth acquired by energetic striving, amassed

by the strength of his arms, earned by the sweat of his brow, righteous

wealth righteously gained. When he thinks, 'I possess wealth acquired

by energetic striving ... righteously gained/ he experiences happiness

and joy. This is called the happiness of possession.

"And what, householder, is the happiness of enjoyment? Here, with

the wealth acquired by energetic striving, amassed by the strength of

his arms, earned by the sweat of his brow, righteous wealth right-

eously gained, a family man enjoys his wealth and does meritorious

deeds. When he thinks, 'With the wealth acquired by energetic striv-

ing ... righteously gained, I enjoy my wealth and do meritorious

deeds,' he experiences happiness and joy. This is called the happiness

of enjoyment.

"And what, householder, is the happiness of freedom from debt?

Here, a family man is not indebted to anyone to any degree, whether

small or great. When he thinks, T am not indebted to anyone to any

degree, whether small or great/ he experiences happiness and joy. This

is called the happiness of freedom from debt.

"And what, householder, is the happiness of blamelessness? Here,

householder, a noble disciple is endowed with blameless conduct of

body, speech, and mind. When he thinks, T am endowed with blame-

less conduct of body, speech, and mind/ he experiences happiness and

joy. This is called the happiness of blamelessness.

"These, householder, are the four kinds of happiness that a layper-

son who enjoys sensual pleasures may achieve, depending on time and

occasion."

(AN 4:62; II 69-70)

5. THE WOMAN OF THE HOME

On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at Savatthi in the East-

ern Park, in the Mansion of Migara's Mother. Then Visakha, Migara's

mother, approached the Blessed One, paid homage to him, and sat

down to one side.

The Blessed One then said to her:

"Visakha, when a woman possesses four qualities she is heading for

victory in the present world and is successful in this world. What four?

The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 129

"Here, Visakha, a woman is capable at her work; she manages her

domestic help; she behaves in a way that is agreeable to her husband;

and she safeguards his earnings.

"And how is a woman capable at her work? Here, Visakha, she is

skillful and diligent in regard to her husband's household chores,

whether with wool or cotton; she investigates the appropriate means

and is able to act and arrange everything properly. In this way a

woman is capable at her work.

"And how is a woman one who manages the domestic help? Here,

Visakha, in regard to her husband's domestic helpers—slaves, ser-

vants, or workers—she knows by direct inspection what they have

done and failed to do; she knows when they are sick and healthy; and

she distributes to each the appropriate share of food. In this way a

woman manages the domestic help.

"And how does a woman behave in a way that is agreeable to her

husband? Here, Visakha, a woman would not commit any misdeed

that her husband would consider disagreeable, even at the cost of her

life. In this way a woman behaves in a way that is agreeable to her

husband.

"And how does a woman safeguard her husband's earnings? Here,

Visakha, whatever her husband brings home—whether money or

grain, silver or gold—she succeeds in protecting and guarding it, and

she is not a spendthrift, thief, wastrel, or squanderer of his wealth. In

this way a woman safeguards her husband's earnings.

"When, Visakha, a woman possesses these four qualities, she is

heading for victory in the present world and is successful in this

world. But when she possesses four other qualities, she is heading for

victory in the other world and is successful in regard to the other

world. What four?

"Here, Visakha, a woman is accomplished in faith, moral discipline,

generosity, and wisdom.

"And how is a woman accomplished in faith? Here, Visakha, a

woman has faith; she places faith in the enlightenment of the Tathagata

thus: 'So the Blessed One is an arahant... [as in Text IV,3] ... teacher of

devas and humans, the Enlightened One, the Blessed One.' In this way

a woman is accomplished in faith.

"And how is a woman accomplished in moral discipline? Here,

Visakha, a woman abstains from the destruction of life, from stealing,

130 In the Buddha's Words

from sexual misconduct, from false speech, and from wines, liquors,

and intoxicants, the basis for negligence. In this way a woman is

accomplished in moral discipline.

"And how is a woman accomplished in generosity? Here, Visakha,

a woman dwells at home with a mind devoid of the stain of stinginess,

freely generous, open-handed, delighting in relinquishment, one

devoted to charity, delighting in giving and sharing. In this way a

woman is accomplished in generosity.

"And how is a woman accomplished in wisdom? Here, Visakha, a

woman possesses the wisdom that sees into the arising and passing

away of phenomena, that is noble and penetrative and leads to the

complete destruction of suffering.

"When a woman possesses these four qualities, she is heading for

victory in the other world and is successful in regard to the other

world."

(AN 8:49; IV 269-71)

6. THE COMMUNITY

(1) Six Roots of Dispute

6. "There are, Ananda, these six roots of disputes. What six? Here,

Ananda, a monk is angry and resentful. Such a monk dwells without

respect and deference toward the Teacher, the Dhamma, and the

Sahgha, and he does not fulfill the training. A monk who dwells with-

out respect and deference toward the Teacher, the Dhamma, and the

Sahgha, and who does not fulfill the training, creates a dispute in the

Sahgha, which would be for the harm and unhappiness of many, for

the loss, harm, and suffering of devas and humans. Now if you see

any such root of dispute either in yourselves or externally, you should

strive to abandon that same evil root of dispute. And if you do not see

any such root of dispute either in yourselves or externally, you should

practice in such a way that that same evil root of dispute does not erupt

in the future. Thus there is the abandoning of that.evil root of dispute;

thus there is the non-eruption of that evil root of dispute in the future.

7-11. "Again, a monk is contemptuous and insolent... envious and

niggardly ... deceitful and fraudulent ... has evil wishes and wrong

view ... adheres to his own views, holds on to them tenaciously, and

The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 131

relinquishes them with difficulty. Such a monk dwells without respect

and deference toward the Teacher, the Dhamma, and the Sahgha, and

he does not fulfill the training. A monk who dwells without respect

and deference toward the Teacher, the Dhamma, and the Sahgha, and

who does not fulfill the training, creates a dispute in the Sahgha, which

would be for the harm and unhappiness of many, for the loss, harm,

and suffering of devas and humans. Now if you see any such root of

dispute either in yourselves or externally, you should strive to abandon

that same evil root of dispute. And if you do not see any such root of

dispute either in yourselves or externally, you should practice in such

a way that that same evil root of dispute does not erupt in the future.

Thus there is the abandoning of that evil root of dispute; thus there is

the non-eruption of that evil root of dispute in the future. These are

the six roots of dispute."

(from MN 104: Samagama Sutta; II245-47)

(2) Six Principles of Cordiality

21. "Ananda, there are these six principles of cordiality that create love

and respect, and conduce to cohesion, nondispute, concord, and unity.

What are the six?

"Here a monk maintains bodily acts of loving-kindness both in pub-

lic and in private toward his companions in the holy life. This is a prin-

ciple of cordiality that creates love and respect, and conduces to

cohesion, nondispute, concord, and unity.

"Again, a monk maintains verbal acts of loving-kindness both in

public and in private toward his companions in the holy life. This too

is a principle of cordiality that creates love and respect, and conduces

to ... unity.

"Again, a monk maintains mental acts of loving-kindness both in

public and in private toward his companions in the holy life. This too

is a principle of cordiality that creates love and respect, and conduces

to ... unity.

"Again, a monk enjoys things in common with his virtuous com-

panions in the holy life; without making reservations, he shares with

them any righteous gain that has been obtained in a righteous way,

including even the mere content of his alms bowl. This too is a princi-

ple of cordiality that creates love and respect, and conduces to ... unity.

132 In the Buddha's Words

"Again, a monk dwells both in public and in private possessing in

common with his companions in the holy life those virtues that are

unbroken, untorn, unblemished, unmottled, freeing, praised by the

wise, ungrasped, leading to concentration. This too is a principle of

cordiality that creates love and respect and conduces to ... unity.

"Again, a monk dwells both in public and in private possessing in

common with his companions in the holy life that view that is noble

and emancipating, and leads the one who practices in accordance with

it to the complete destruction of suffering. This too is a principle of

cordiality that creates love and respect, and conduces to cohesion, to

nondispute, to concord, and to unity.

"These are the six principles of cordiality that create love and respect,

and conduce to cohesion, to nondispute, to concord, and to unity.

(from MN 104: Samagama Sutta; II250-51)

(3) Purification Is for All Four Castes

1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living at

Savatthi in Jeta's Grove, Anathapindika's Park.

2. Now at that time five hundred brahmins from diverse provinces

were staying at Savatthi for some business or other. Then those brah-

mins thought: "This ascetic Gotama describes purification for all the

four castes. Who is there able to dispute with him about this assertion?"

3. Now on that occasion a brahmin student named Assalayana was

staying at Savatthi. Young, shaven-headed, sixteen years old, he was a

master of the three Vedas with their vocabularies, liturgy, phonology,

and etymology, and the histories as a fifth; skilled in philology and

grammar, he was fully versed in natural philosophy and in the marks

of a great man. So the brahmins thought he would be able to debate

with the Blessed One.

4. They went to the brahmin student Assalayana and said to him:

"Master Assalayana, this ascetic Gotama describes purification for all

the four castes. Let Master Assalayana come and dispute with the asce-

tic Gotama about this assertion."

When this was said, the brahmin student Assalayana replied: "Sirs,

the ascetic Gotama is one who speaks the Dhamma. Now those who

speak the Dhamma are difficult to dispute with. I cannot dispute with

the ascetic Gotama about this assertion."

The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 133

A second time and a third time the brahmins urged him to go. A sec-

ond time the brahmin student Assalayana refused, but after the third

urging he consented.

5. Then the brahmin student Assalayana went with a large number

of brahmins to the Blessed One and exchanged greetings with him.

When this courteous and amiable talk was finished, he sat down at

one side and said to the Blessed One: "Master Gotama, the brahmins

say thus: 'Brahmins are the highest caste, those of any other caste are

inferior; brahmins are the fairest caste, those of any other caste are

dark; only brahmins are purified, not non-brahmins; brahmins alone

are the sons of Brahma, the offspring of Brahma, born of his mouth,

born of Brahma, created by Brahma, heirs of Brahma.' What does Mas-

ter Gotama say about that?"

"Now, Assalayana, the brahmin women are seen having their peri-

ods, becoming pregnant, giving birth, and nursing.

And yet those

brahmins, though born from the womb, say thus: 'Brahmins are the

highest caste ... brahmins alone are the sons of Brahma, the offspring

of Brahma, born of his mouth, born of Brahma, created by Brahma,

heirs of Brahma.'"

6. "Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think thus:

'Brahmins are the highest caste ... heirs of Brahma.'"

"What do you think, Assalayana? Have you heard that in Yona and

Kamboja

and in other outland countries there are only two castes,

masters and slaves, and that masters become slaves and slaves become

masters?"

"So I have heard, sir."

"Then on the strength of what [argument] or with the support of

what [authority] do the brahmins in this case say thus: 'Brahmins are

the highest caste ... heirs of Brahma'?"

7. "Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think thus:

'Brahmins are the highest caste ... heirs of Brahma.'"

"What do you think, Assalayana? Suppose a khattiya were to kill

living beings, take what is not given, commit sexual misconduct, speak

falsely, speak maliciously, speak harshly, gossip, be covetous, have a

mind of ill will, and hold wrong view. With the breakup of the body,

after death, would only he be reborn in a state of misery, in a bad des-

tination, in the lower world, in hell—and not a brahmin? Suppose a

merchant ... a worker were to kill living beings ... and hold wrong

136 In the Buddha's Words

flame, a color, and a radiance, and it is possible to use all fire for the

purposes of fire."

"Then on the strength of what [argument] or with the support of

what [authority] do the brahmins in this case say thus: 'Brahmins are

the highest caste ... heirs of Brahma'?"

12. "Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think

thus: 'Brahmins are the highest caste ... heirs of Brahma.'"

"What do you think, Assalayana? Suppose a khattiya youth were to

unite with a brahmin girl, and a son was born from their union. Should

a son born from a khattiya youth and a brahmin girl be called a khat-

tiya after the father or a brahmin after the mother?"

"He could be called both, Master Gotama."

13. "What do you think, Assalayana? Suppose a brahmin youth here

were to unite with a khattiya girl, and a son were to be born from their

union. Should the son born from a brahmin youth and a khattiya girl

be called a khattiya after the mother or a brahmin after the father?"

"He could be called both, Master Gotama."

14. "What do you think, Assalayana? Suppose a mare were to be

mated with a male donkey, and a foal were to be born as the result.

Should the foal be called a horse after the mother or a donkey after the

father?"

"It is a mule, Master Gotama, since it does not belong to either kind.

I see the difference in this last case, but I see no difference in either of

the former cases."

15. "What do you think, Assalayana? Suppose there were two brah-

min students who were brothers, born of the same mother, one stu-

dious and intelligent, and one neither studious nor intelligent. Which

of them would brahmins feed first at a funeral feast, or at a ceremonial

offering, or at a sacrificial feast, or at a feast for guests?"

"On such occasions, brahmins would feed first the one who was stu-

dious and intelligent, Master Gotama; for how could what is given to

one who is neither studious nor intelligent bring great fruit?"

16. "What do you think, Assalayana? Suppose there were two brah-

min students who were brothers, born of the same mother, one stu-

dious and intelligent, but immoral and of bad character, and one

neither studious nor intelligent, but virtuous and of good character.

Which of them would brahmins feed first at a funeral feast, or at a cer-

emonial offering, or at a sacrificial feast, or at a feast for guests?"

The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 137

"On such occasions, brahmins would feed first the one who was nei-

ther studious nor intelligent, but virtuous and of good character, Mas-

ter Gotama; for how could what is given to one who is immoral and of

bad character bring great fruit?"

17. "First, Assalayana, you took your stand on birth, and after that

you took your stand on scriptural learning, and after that you have

come to take your stand on the very ground that purification is for all

four castes, as I describe it."

When this was said, the brahmin student Assalayana sat silent and

dismayed, his shoulders drooping and head down, glum and without

response.

(MN 93: Assalayana Sutta, abridged; II147-54)

(4) Seven Principles of Social Stability

1.1. Thus have I heard. Once the Blessed One was staying at Rajagaha

on Mount Vulture Peak. Now just then King Ajatasattu Vedehiputta of

Magadha wanted to attack the Vajjians.

He said: "I will strike the

Vajjians who are so powerful and strong, I will cut them off and destroy

them, I will bring them to ruin and destruction!"

1.2. And King Ajatasattu said to his chief minister, the brahmin Vassa-

kara: "Brahmin, go to the Blessed One, worship him with your head to

his feet in my name, ask if he is free from sickness or disease, if he is liv-

ing at ease, vigorously and comfortably, and then say: 'Lord, King

Ajatasattu Vedehiputta of Magadha wishes to attack the Vajjians and

says: "I will strike the Vajjians ... bring them to ruin and destruction!'"

And whatever the Blessed One declares to you, report that faithfully

back to me, for Tathagatas never lie."

1.3. "Very good, Sire," said Vassakara, and having had the state car-

riages harnessed, he mounted one of them and drove in state from

Rajagaha to Vultures' Peak, riding as far as the ground would allow,

then continuing on foot to where the Blessed One was. He exchanged

courtesies with the Blessed One, then sat down to one side and deliv-

ered the king's message.

1.4. Now the Venerable Ananda was standing behind the Blessed

One, fanning him. And the Blessed One said:

(1) "Ananda, have you heard that the Vajjians hold regular and fre-

quent assemblies?"—"I have heard, venerable sir, that they do."

138 In the Buddha's Words

"Ananda, as long as the Vajjians hold regular and frequent assem-

blies, they may be expected to prosper and not decline.

(2) "Have you heard that the Vajjians meet in harmony, break up in

harmony, and carry on their business in harmony?"—"I have heard,

venerable sir, that they do."

"Ananda, as long as the Vajjians meet in harmony, break up in har-

mony, and carry on their business in harmony, they may be expected

to prosper and not decline.

(3) "Have you heard that the Vajjians do not authorize what has not

been authorized already, and do not abolish what has been authorized,

but proceed according to what has been authorized by their ancient

tradition?"—"I have, venerable sir."... (4) "Have you heard that they

honor, respect, revere, and salute the elders among them, and consider

them worth listening to?... (5) that they do not forcibly abduct others'

wives and daughters and compel them to live with them?... (6) that

they honor, respect, revere, and salute the Vajjian shrines at home and

abroad, not withdrawing the proper support made and given

before?... (7) that proper provision is made for the safety of arahants,

so that such arahants may come in future to live there and those

already there may dwell in comfort?"—"I have, Lord."

"Ananda, so long as such proper provision is made ... the Vajjians

may be expected to prosper and not decline."

1.5. Then the Lord said to the brahmin Vassakara: "Once, brahmin,

when I was at the Sarandada Shrine in Vesali, I taught the Vajjians these

seven principles for preventing decline, and as long as they keep to

these seven principles, as long as these principles remain in force, the

Vajjians may be expected to prosper and not decline."

At this, Vassakara replied: "Master Gotama, if the Vajjians keep to

even one of these principles, they may be expected to prosper and not

decline—far less all seven. Certainly the Vajjians will never be con-

quered by King Ajatasattu by force of arms, but only by means of prop-

aganda and setting them against one another. And now, Master

Gotama, I must depart. I am busy and have much to do."

"Brahmin, do as you think fit." Then Vassakara, rejoicing and

delighted at the Blessed One's words, rose from his seat and departed.

1.6. Soon after Vassakara had gone, the Blessed One said: "Ananda,

go to whatever monks there are living around Rajagaha, and summon

them to the assembly hall."

The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 139

"Yes, venerable sir," said Ananda, and he did so. Then he came to the

Blessed One, saluted him, stood to one side, and said: "Venerable sir,

the Sahgha of monks is assembled. Now is the time for the Blessed

One to do as he sees fit." Then the Blessed One rose from his seat, went

to the assembly hall, sat down on the prepared seat, and said: "Monks,

I will teach you seven things that are conducive to welfare. Listen, pay

careful attention, and I will speak."

"Yes, venerable sir," said the monks, and the Blessed One said:

"As long as the monks hold regular and frequent assemblies, they

may be expected to prosper and not decline. As long as they meet in

harmony, break up in harmony, and carry on their business in har-

mony, they may be expected to prosper and not decline. As long as

they do not authorize what has not been authorized already, and do

not abolish what has been authorized, but proceed according to what

has been authorized by the rules of training...; as long as they honor,

respect, revere, and salute the elders of long standing who are long

ordained, fathers and leaders of the order...; as long as they do not fall

prey to the craving that arises in them and leads to rebirth...; as long

as they are devoted to forest-lodgings...; as long as they preserve their

mindfulness regarding the body, so that in future the good among their

companions will come to them, and those who have already come will

feel at ease with them...; as long as the monks hold to these seven

things and are seen to do so, they may be expected to prosper and not

decline."

(from DN 16: Mahaparinibbana Sutta; II72-77)

(5) The Wheel-Turning Monarch

3. "And, after many hundreds and thousands of years, King Dalha-

nemi said to a certain man: 'My good man, whenever you see that the

sacred wheel-treasure has slipped from its position, report it to me.'

'Yes, Sire,' the man replied. And after many hundreds and thousands

of years the man saw that the sacred wheel-treasure had slipped from

its position. Seeing this, he reported the fact to the king. Then King

Dalhanemi sent for his eldest son, the crown prince, and said: 'My son,

the sacred wheel-treasure has slipped from its position. And I have

heard say that when this happens to a wheel-turning monarch, he has

not much longer to live. I have had my fill of human pleasures, now is

140 In the Buddha's Words

the time to seek heavenly pleasures. You, my son, take over control of

this land. I will shave off my hair and beard, put on ochre robes, and

go forth from the household life into homelessness.' And, having

installed his eldest son in due form as king, King Dalhanemi shaved off

his hair and beard, put on ochre robes, and went forth from the house-

hold life into homelessness. And, seven days after the royal sage had

gone forth, the sacred wheel-treasure vanished.

4. "Then a certain man came to the consecrated khattiya king and

said: 'Sire, you should know that the sacred wheel-treasure has disap-

peared.' At this the king was grieved and felt sad. He went to the royal

sage and told him the news. And the royal sage said to him: 'My son,

you should not grieve or feel sad at the disappearance of the wheel-

treasure. The wheel-treasure is not an heirloom from your fathers. But

now, my son, you must turn yourself into a noble wheel-turner. And

then it may come about that, if you perform the duties of a noble

wheel-turning monarch, on the uposatha day of the fifteenth,

when

you have washed your head and gone up to the verandah on top of

your palace for the uposatha day, the sacred wheel-treasure will appear

to you, thousand-spoked, complete with rim, hub, and all accessories.'

5. "'But what, Sire, is the duty of a noble wheel-turning monarch?'—

'It is this, my son: Yourself depending on the Dhamma, honoring it,

revering it, cherishing it, doing homage to it, and venerating it, having

the Dhamma as your badge and banner, acknowledging the Dhamma

as your master, you should establish righteous guard, ward, and pro-

tection for your own household, your troops, your khattiyas and vas-

sals, for brahmins and householders, town and country folk, ascetics

and brahmins, for beasts and birds. Let no crime prevail in your king-

dom, and to those who are in need, give wealth. And whatever asce-

tics and brahmins in your kingdom have renounced the life of sensual

infatuation and are devoted to forbearance and gentleness, each one

taming himself, each one calming himself, and each one striving for the

end of craving, from time to time you should approach them and ask:

"What, venerable sirs, is wholesome and what is unwholesome, what

is blameworthy and what is blameless, what is to be followed and what

is not to be followed? What action will in the long run lead to harm and

sorrow, and what to welfare and happiness?"

Having listened to

them, you should avoid what is unwholesome and do what is whole-

some. That, my son, is the duty of a noble wheel-turning monarch.'

The Happiness Visible in This Present Life 141

"'Yes, Sire,' said the king, and he performed the duties of a noble

wheel-turning monarch. And as he did so, on the uposatha day of the

fifteenth, when he had washed his head and gone up to the verandah

on top of his palace for the uposatha day, the sacred wheel-treasure

appeared to him, thousand-spoked, complete with rim, hub, and all

accessories. Then the king thought: T have heard that when a duly

anointed khattiya king sees such a wheel on the uposatha day of the fif-

teenth, he will become a wheel-turning monarch. May I become such

a monarch?'

6. "Then, rising from his seat, covering one shoulder with his robe,

the king took a gold vessel in his left hand, sprinkled the wheel with his

right hand, and said: 'May the noble wheel-treasure turn, may the noble

wheel-treasure conquer!' The wheel turned to the east, and the king fol-

lowed it with his fourfold army. And in whatever country the wheel

stopped, the king took up residence with his fourfold army. And those

who opposed him in the eastern region came and said: 'Come, Your

Majesty, welcome. We are yours, Your Majesty. Rule us, Your Majesty.'

And the king said: 'Do not take life. Do not take what is not given. Do

not commit sexual misconduct. Do not tell lies. Do not drink intoxicat-

ing drinks. Enjoy your possessions as before.'

And those who had

opposed him in the eastern region became his subjects.

7. "Then the wheel turned south, west, and north ... [as section 6] ...

Then the wheel-treasure, having conquered the lands from sea to sea,

returned to the royal capital and stopped before the king's palace as he

was trying a case, as if to adorn the royal palace."

(from DN 26: Cakkavatti-Sihanada Sutta; III 59-63)

(6) Bringing Tranquillity to the Land

9. Sitting to one side, the brahmin Kutadanta addressed the Blessed

One: "Master Gotama, I have heard that you understand how to con-

duct successfully the triple sacrifice with its sixteen requisites. Now I

do not understand all this, but I want to make a big sacrifice. It would

be good if Master Gotama would explain this to me."

"Then listen, brahmin, pay proper attention, and I will explain."

"Yes, sir," replied Kutadanta, and the Blessed One continued:

10. "Brahmin, once upon a time there was a king called Mahavijita.

He was rich, of great wealth and resources, with an abundance of gold

142 In the Buddha's Words

and silver, of possessions and requisites, of money and money's worth,

with a full treasury and granary. And when King Mahavijita was

reflecting in private, the thought came to him: 'I have acquired exten-

sive wealth in human terms, I occupy a wide extent of land which I

have conquered. Let me now make a great sacrifice that would be to

my benefit and happiness for a long time.' And calling his chaplain,"

he told him his thought. 'I want to make a great sacrifice. Instruct me,

venerable sir, how this may be to my lasting benefit and happiness.'

11. "The chaplain replied: 'Your Majesty's country is beset by thieves.

It is ravaged; villages and towns are being destroyed; the countryside

is infested with brigands. If Your Majesty were to tax this region, that

would be the wrong thing to do. Suppose Your Majesty were to think:

"I will get rid of this plague of robbers by executions and imprison-

ment, or by confiscation, threats, and banishment," the plague would

not be properly ended. Those who survived would later harm Your

Majesty's realm. However, with this plan you can completely elimi-

nate the plague. To those in the kingdom who are engaged in cultivat-

ing crops and raising cattle, let Your Majesty distribute grain and

fodder; to those in trade, give capital; to those in government service

assign proper living wages. Then those people, being intent on their

own occupations, will not harm the kingdom. Your Majesty's revenues

will be great; the land will be tranquil and not beset by thieves; and the

people, with joy in their hearts, playing with their children, will dwell

in open houses.'

"And saying: 'So be it!,' the king accepted the chaplain's advice: he

gave grain and fodder to those engaged in cultivating crops and rais-

ing cattle, capital to those in trade, proper living wages to those in gov-

ernment service. Then those people, being intent on their own

occupations, did not harm the kingdom. The king's revenues became

great; the land was tranquil and not beset by thieves; and the people,

with joy in their hearts, playing with their children, dwelled in open

houses."

(from DN 5: Kutadanta Sutta; 1134-36)

INTRODUCTION

In his account of his "noble quest/' the Buddha says that when he

gazed out upon the world soon after his enlightenment, he saw that

sentient beings are like lotus flowers at various stages of growth within

a pond (see p. 71). While some beings are like lotuses at or near the

surface of the pond, capable of awakening merely by being exposed to

his world-transcending teachings, the vast majority of people who

encounter the Dhamma are like the lotuses growing deep below the

surface. These lotuses benefit from the sunlight and use its energy to

sustain their life, yet still need time to reach the surface and blossom.

So too, the great multitude of people who hear the Buddha's teachings

and establish faith must still nurture their wholesome qualities with

the radiant energy of the Dhamma before their mindstreams become

mature enough to attain direct realization. This process ordinarily

requires many lives, and thus such people have to take a long-term

approach to their spiritual development. While practicing the way to

liberation, they must avoid a rebirth in the unfortunate realms and win

successive rebirths blessed with material security, happiness, and

opportunities for further spiritual progress.

These benefits, the enhancing conditions for spiritual development in

the Dhamma, come about by the acquisition of punna or "merit," a word

that signifies the capacity of wholesome action to yield beneficial results

within the cycle of rebirths. According to the Buddha's teaching, the

cosmos, with its many realms of sentient existence, is governed at all

levels by immutable laws, physical, biological, psychological, and eth-

ical. The process by which sentient beings migrate from one state of

existence to another is likewise lawful. It is regulated by a law that

Works in two principal ways: first, it connects our actions with a partic-

ular realm of rebirth that corresponds to our actions; and second, it

determines the relations between our actions and the quality of our

experience within the particular realm into which we have been reborn.

The governing factor in this process, the factor that makes the entire

process a lawful one, is a force called kamma (Skt: karma). The word

145

146 In the Buddha's Words

"kamma" literally means action, but technically it refers to volitional

action. As the Buddha says: "It is volition (cetana) that I call kamma; for

having willed (cetayitva), one acts by body, speech, and mind."

Kamma

thus denotes deeds that originate from volition. Such volition may

remain purely mental, generating mental kamma that occurs as

thoughts, plans, and desires; or it may come to expression outwardly

through manifest bodily and verbal actions.

It may seem that our deeds, once performed, perish and vanish

without leaving behind any traces apart from their visible impact on

other people and our environment. However, according to the

Buddha, all morally determinate volitional actions create a potential

to bring forth results (vipaka) or fruits (phala) that correspond to the

ethical quality of those actions. This capacity of our deeds to produce

the morally appropriate results is what is meant by kamma. Our deeds

generate kamma, a potential to produce fruits that correspond to

their own intrinsic tendencies. Then, when internal and external con-

ditions are suitable, the kamma ripens and produces the appropriate

fruits. In ripening, the kamma rebounds upon us for good or for harm

depending on the moral quality of the original action. This may hap-

pen either later in the same life in which the action was done, in the

next life, or in some distant future life.

The one thing that is certain

is that as long as we remain within samsara any stored-up kamma of

ours will be capable of ripening so long as it has not yet produced its

due results.

On the basis of its ethical quality, the Buddha distinguishes kamma

into two major categories: the unwholesome (akusala) and the whole-

some (kusala). Unwholesome kamma is action that is spiritually detri-

mental to the agent, morally reprehensible, and potentially productive

of an unfortunate rebirth and painful results. The criterion for judging

an action to be unwholesome is its underlying motives, the "roots" from

which it springs. There are three unwholesome roots: greed, hatred, and

delusion. From these there arises a wide variety of secondary defile-

ments—states such as anger, hostility, envy, selfishness, arrogance,

pride, presumption, and laziness—and from the root defilements and

secondary defilements arise defiled actions.

Wholesome kamma, on the other hand, is action that is spiritually

beneficial and morally commendable; it is action that ripens in happi-

ness and good fortune. Its underlying motives are the three wholesome

The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 147

roots: nongreed, nonhatred, and nondelusion, which may be

expressed more positively as generosity, loving-kindness, and wis-

dom. Whereas actions springing from the unwholesome roots are nec-

essarily bound to the world of repeated birth and death, actions

springing from the wholesome roots may be of two kinds, mundane

and world-transcending. The mundane (lokiya) wholesome actions

have the potential to produce a fortunate rebirth and pleasant results

within the round of rebirths. The world-transcending or supramun-

dane (lokuttara) wholesome actions—namely, the kamma generated

by developing the Noble Eightfold Path and the other aids to enlight-

enment—lead to enlightenment and to liberation from the round of

rebirths. This is the kamma that dismantles the entire process of

karmic causation.

The correlation between kamma and its results is indicated in a gen-

eral way in Text V,l(l). This sutta refers to unwholesome action as

"dark kamma" and mundane wholesome action as "bright kamma."

It also refers to a type of kamma that is both dark and bright. Strictly

speaking, this does not denote a single action that simultaneously par-

takes of both unwholesome and wholesome characteristics; techni-

cally such a thing is impossible, for an action must be one or the other.

The combined kamma refers to the conduct of a person who intermit-

tently engages in both unwholesome and wholesome behavior.

Finally, the sutta speaks of a fourth type of kamma that is neither dark

nor bright. This is the action of developing the Noble Eightfold Path,

the wholesome world-transcending kamma.

It cannot be emphasized strongly enough that for Early Buddhism an

understanding and acceptance of this principle of kamma and its fruit

is an essential component of right view. Right view has two aspects, the

world-bound or mundane aspect, which pertains to life within the

world, and the supramundane or world-transcending aspect, which

pertains to the path to liberation.

The world-transcending right view

includes an understanding of the Four Noble Truths, dependent origi-

nation, and the three marks of impermanence, suffering, and nonself.

For Early Buddhism this world-transcending right view cannot be

taken up in isolation from mundane right view. Rather, it presupposes

and depends upon the sound support of mundane right view, which

means a firm conviction in the validity of the law of kamma and its

unfolding through the process of rebirths.

148 In the Buddha's Words

To accept the law of kamma entails a radical transformation in our

understanding of our relationship to the world. The twin doctrines of

kamma and rebirth enable us to see that the world in which we live is,

in important respects, an external reflection of the internal cosmos of

the mind. This does not mean that the external world can be reduced

to a mental projection in the way proposed by certain types of philo-

sophical idealism. However, taken in conjunction, these two doctrines

do show that the conditions under which we live closely correspond

to the karmic tendencies of our minds. The reason why a living being

is reborn into a particular realm is because in a previous life that being

has generated the kamma, or volitional action, that leads to rebirth

into that realm. Thus, in the final analysis, all the realms of existence

have been formed, fashioned, and sustained by the mental activity of

living beings. As the Buddha says: "For beings obstructed by igno-

rance and hindered by craving, kamma is the field, consciousness the

seed, and craving the moisture, for consciousness to be established in

a new realm of existence—either inferior, middling, or superior" (AN

3:76; I 223).

The next selection, Text V,l(2), draws a finer distinction among the

types of unwholesome and wholesome kamma. The text enumerates

ten primary instances of each class. Here they are called respectively

"unrighteous conduct, conduct not in accordance with the Dhamma"

and "righteous conduct, conduct in accordance with the Dhamma" but

they are usually known as the ten pathways of unwholesome and

wholesome kamma.

The ten are subdivided by way of the three

"doors of action"—body, speech, and mind. Taking the unwholesome

first, there are three kinds of bodily misconduct: killing, stealing, and

sexual misconduct; four kinds of verbal misconduct: lying, malicious

speech, harsh speech, and idle chatter (or gossip); and three kinds of

mental misconduct: covetousness, ill will, and wrong view. The ten

courses of wholesome action are their exact opposites: abstinence from

the three kinds of bodily misconduct; abstinence from the four kinds

of verbal misconduct; and noncovetousness, goodwill, and right view.

According to the sutta, the ten types of unwholesome kamma are the

reason that beings are reborn in the bad destinations after death; the

ten types of wholesome kamma are the reason that beings are reborn

in the good destinations after death. As the sutta shows, the ten types

of wholesome kamma are the support, not only for a heavenly rebirth,

The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 149

but also for "the destruction of the taints," the attainment of liberation.

The concluding paragraphs of this sutta give us a brief survey of

Buddhist cosmology. The Buddhist cosmos is divided into three broad

realms—the sense-sphere realm (kamadhatu), the form realm (rupa-

dhatu), and the formless realm (ariipadhatu)—each comprising a range

of subsidiary planes.

The sense-sphere realm, our realm, is so called because the beings

reborn here are strongly driven by sensual desire. The realm is divided

into two levels, the bad destinations and the good destinations. The

bad destinations or "states of misery" (apaya) are three in number: the

hells, states of intense torment (see MN 129 and 130, not included in

this anthology); the animal kingdom; and the sphere of spirits (petti-

visaya), beings afflicted with incessant hunger, thirst, and other suffer-

ings. These are the realms of retribution for the ten unwholesome paths

of kamma.

The good destinations in the sense-sphere realm are the human

world and the six sensual heavenly planes. The latter are: the devas in

the heaven of the Four Great Kings, who are presided over by four

powerful devas (namely, the Four Great Kings); the Tavatimsa devas

presided over by Sakka, a devotee of the Buddha who is faithful but

prone to negligence (see the Sakkasamyutta, SN chapter 11); the Yama

devas; the devas of the Tusita heaven, the abode of a bodhisatta before

his final birth; the Nimmanarati devas ("the gods who delight in cre-

ating"); and the Paranimmitavasavatti devas ("the gods who control

what is created by others"). The karmic cause for rebirth into the good

destinations of the sense-sphere realm is the practice of the ten courses

of wholesome action.

In the form realm the grosser types of material form are absent. Its

denizens, known as brahmas, enjoy bliss, power, luminosity, and vital-

ity far superior to the beings in the sense-sphere realm. The form realm

consists of sixteen planes. These are the objective counterparts of the

four jhanas. Attainment of the first jhana leads to rebirth among

Brahma's assembly, the ministers of Brahma, and the Mahabrahmas,

according to whether it is developed to an inferior, middling, or supe-

rior degree. The second jhana, attained in the same three degrees, leads

respectively to rebirth among the devas of limited radiance, of meas-

ureless radiance, and of streaming radiance. The third jhana, attained

in the same three degrees, leads respectively to rebirth among the

150 In the Buddha's Words

devas of limited glory, of measureless glory, and of refulgent glory. The

fourth jhana ordinarily leads to rebirth among the devas of great fruit,

but if developed with a feeling of disgust for perception, it will con-

duce to rebirth among the "nonpercipient beings," beings who lack

perception. The form realm also comprises five planes reserved exclu-

sively for the rebirth of nonreturners (see pp. 379-80), called the pure

abodes: aviha, atappa, sudassa, sudassi, and akanittha. In each of the sub-

tle form planes, the lifespan is said to be of enormous duration and to

increase significantly with each higher plane.

In the third realm of existence, material form is nonexistent and bare

mental processes exist; hence it is called the formless realm. This realm

consists of four planes, which are the objective counterparts of the

four formless meditative attainments, after which they are named: the

base of the infinity of space, the base of the infinity of consciousness,

the base of nothingness, and the base of neither-perception-nor-non-

perception. The lifespans ascribed to these realms are respectively

20,000; 40,000; 60,000; and 84,000 great eons. (For the duration of one

eon, see Text 1,4(3).)

For Buddhist cosmology, existence in every realm, being the product

of a kamma with a finite potency, is necessarily impermanent. Beings

take rebirth into a realm appropriate for their kamma or deeds, expe-

rience the good or bad results, and then, when the generative kamma

has spent its force, they pass away to take rebirth elsewhere as deter-

mined by still another kamma that has found the opportunity to ripen.

Hence the torments of hell as well as the joys of heaven, no matter how

long they may last, are bound to pass. The Buddha guides those whose

spiritual faculties are still tender to aspire for a human or heavenly

rebirth and teaches them the lines of conduct that conduce to the ful-

fillment of their aspirations. But he urges those with mature faculties

to make a determined effort to put an end to the aimless wandering of

samsara and reach the Deathless, Nibbana, which transcends all con-

ditioned planes of being.

While the first two texts in this chapter establish a general correla-

tion between kamma and spheres of rebirth, Text V,l(3) specifies the

underlying karmic causes for the manifest differences in human life.

It does so with reference to a well-known saying of the Buddha:

"Beings are owners of their kamma, heirs of their kamma; they orig-

inate from their kamma, are bound to their kamma, have their

The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 151

kamma as their refuge. It is kamma that distinguishes beings as infe-

rior and superior." The sutta proposes to explain this statement with

regard to seven pairs of contrasting qualities observed among people.

This text also introduces a distinction between two types of conse-

quences that an unwholesome kamma can have: the more powerful

is rebirth in a bad destination; the other is unpleasant fruits within the

human state, for example, a short lifespan for one who in an earlier

life killed living beings. An analogous distinction obtains among the

consequences that a wholesome kamma can have: the more power-

ful is rebirth in a heavenly world; the other is pleasant fruits within

the human state.

The next section deals with merit (punna), wholesome kamma capa-

ble of yielding favorable results within the cycle of rebirths. Merit pro-

duces mundane benefits, such as a good rebirth, wealth, beauty, and

success. It also serves as an enhancing condition for supramundane

benefits, that is, for attaining the stages along the path to enlighten-

ment. Hence, as seen in Text V,2(l), the Buddha urges his disciples to

cultivate merit, referring to his own cultivation of merit over many

previous lives as an example.

The Nikayas concisely organize the types of merit into three "bases

of meritorious deeds" (punnakiriyavatthu): giving, moral discipline,

and meditation. Text V,2(2) connects the bases of merit with the types

of rebirth to which they lead. In the Indian religious context, the prac-

tice of meritorious deeds revolves around faith in certain objects

regarded as sacred and spiritually empowering, capable of serving as

a support for the acquisition of merit. For followers of the Buddha's

teaching these are the Three Jewels: the Buddha, the Dhamma, and

the Sahgha. Text V,2(3) extols these as each supreme in its particular

sphere: the Buddha is supreme among persons, the Dhamma among

teachings, and the Sahgha among religious communities. The text pro-

poses an interesting twofold distinction of the Dhamma Jewel: among

all conditioned things (dhamma sankhata), the Noble Eightfold Path is

supreme; among all things conditioned or unconditioned (dhamma

sankhata va asankhata va), Nibbana is supreme. Merely having confi-

dence in the Three Jewels, that is, reverential trust and devotion

toward them, is itself a basis of merit; but as the verses attached to

the sutta make clear, the Buddha and the Sahgha additionally function

as the recipients of gifts, and in this role they further enable donors to

152 In the Buddha's Words

acquire merit leading to the fulfillment of their virtuous wishes. More

will be said about this aspect of merit just below.

The following sections of this chapter elaborate on the three bases of

merit individually, beginning in section 3 with giving or generosity

(dana). The Buddha often treated giving as the most rudimentary virtue

of the spiritual life, for giving serves to break down the egocentric

frame of mind on the basis of which we habitually interact with others.

Contrary to what a Western reader might expect, however, "giving" for

Early Buddhism does not mean simply philanthropic charity directed

toward the poor and disadvantaged. While it includes this, the practice

of giving has a more context-specific meaning rooted in the social

structure of Indian religiosity. In India during the Buddha's time, those

who sought to fathom the deepest truths of existence and attain release

from the round of birth and death usually renounced home and fam-

ily, relinquished their secure place in the cohesive Indian social order,

and adopted the precarious life of the homeless wanderer. With shaved

heads or matted locks, clad in ochre or white robes or going naked,

they would move from place to place without fixed abode, except dur-

ing the three months of the rainy season, when they would settle in

simple huts, caves, or other lodgings. Such homeless wanderers,

known as samanas ("ascetics") or paribbajakas ("wanderers"), did not

perform any remunerative services but depended upon the charity of

householders for their livelihood. The lay devotees provided them

with their material requisites—robes, food, lodgings, and medicines—

doing so in the confidence that such services were a source of merit

that would help them advance a few steps farther in the direction of

final emancipation.

When the Buddha appeared on the scene, he adopted this mode of

life for himself. Once he commenced his work as a spiritual teacher, he

established his Sahgha on the same principle: the bhikkhus and

bhikkhunis, the monks and nuns, would depend on the charity of oth-

ers for their material support, and they would reciprocate by offering

their donors the more precious gift of the Dhamma, the teaching of the

lofty path that leads to happiness, peace, and final liberation. Text

V,3(5) testifies to this principle of mutual support. By accepting the

gifts of lay people, the monastics give them the opportunity to acquire

merit. Since the volume of merit generated by the act of giving is con-

sidered to be proportional to the worthiness of the recipient, when the

The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 153

recipients are the Buddha and those following in his footsteps, the

merit becomes immeasurable (see MN 142, not included in this anthol-

ogy). For this reason, the savakasangha, the spiritual community of

noble disciples, is called "the unsurpassed field of merit for the world"

(anuttaram punnakhettam lokassa).* Gifts to the Sahgha, it is said, con-

duce to great blessings; they lead to one's welfare and happiness for a

long time and can bring rebirth in the heavenly worlds. But as Text

V,3(6) reminds us, this is true "only for the morally pure, not for the

immoral."

This leads to the next base of merit, "moral discipline" (slid), which

for Early Buddhism requires the undertaking of precepts. The most

basic moral guidelines inculcated in the Nikayas are the five precepts,

the training rules to abstain from taking life, stealing, sexual miscon-

duct, false speech, and the use of intoxicants. These are mentioned in

Text V,4(l), which, by an interesting twist in terminology, speaks of

them as "pristine, traditional, ancient gifts," thus implicitly subsum-

ing slla under dana. The reason the observance of precepts is a form of

giving is because one who undertakes precepts will be "giving to

immeasurable beings freedom from fear, hostility, and oppression,"

and as a karmic consequence "he himself will enjoy immeasurable free-

dom from fear, hostility, and oppression."

While the Buddha enjoins observance of the five precepts upon lay

followers as a full-time obligation, he recommends a more stringent

type of moral practice for the uposatha, the observance days deter-

mined by the lunar calendar: the full-moon day, the new-moon day,

and the two half-moon days. (Of the four, in Buddhist countries today

it is the full-moon day that is given priority.) On these occasions,

devout lay Buddhists undertake eight precepts: the usual five, but with

the third changed to complete sexual abstinence, augmented by three

other precepts that emulate the training rules of a novice monk or nun.

The eight precepts, enumerated in Text V,4(2), augment the training in

sila as a moral observance with a training in self-restraint, simplicity,

and contentment. In this respect they prepare the disciple for the train-

ing of the mind undertaken in the practice of meditation, the third base

of merit.

The practice of meditation is not only the heart of the path to liber-

ation but a source of merit in its own right. Wholesome meditation

practices, even those that do not directly lead to insight, help to purify

154 In the Buddha's Words

the grosser levels of mental defilement and uncover deeper dimen-

sions of the mind's potential purity and radiance. Text V,5(l) declares

that the type of meditation that is most fruitful for the production of

mundane merit is the development of loving-kindness (mettabhavana).

The practice of loving-kindness, however, is only one among a set of

four meditations called the "divine abodes" (brahmavihara) or "immeas-

urable states" (appamanna): the development of loving-kindness, com-

passion, altruistic joy, and equanimity, which are to be extended

boundlessly to all sentient beings. Briefly, loving-kindness (metta) is the

wish for the welfare and happiness of all beings; compassion (karuna),

the feeling of empathy for all those afflicted with suffering; altruistic

joy {mudita), the feeling of happiness at the success and good fortune of

others; and equanimity (upekkha), a balanced reaction to joy and misery,

which protects one from emotional agitation.

These meditations are said to be the means to rebirth in the brahma

world; see Text V,5(2). While the brahmins regarded the brahma world

as the highest attainment, for the Buddha it was just one exalted sphere

of rebirth. The concentration arisen from these meditations, however,

can also be used as a basis for cultivating the wisdom of insight, and

insight culminates in liberation. Text V,5(3), the last selection of this

chapter, thus grades the different types of merit according to their

fruits: from giving (with the various kinds of gifts ranked according to

the spiritual status of the recipients) through the going for refuge and

the five precepts to the meditation on loving-kindness. Then, at the

very end, it declares that the most fruitful deed among them all is the

perception of impermanence. The perception of impermanence, how-

ever, belongs to a different order. It is so fruitful not because it yields

pleasant mundane results within the round of rebirths, but because it

leads to the wisdom of insight that cuts the chains of bondage and

brings the realization of complete emancipation, Nibbana.

V. THE WAY TO A FORTUNATE REBIRTH

X. THE LAW OF KAMMA

(1) Four Kinds of Kamma

"There are, O monks, these four kinds of kamma declared by me after

I had realized them for myself by direct knowledge. What four?

"There is dark kamma with dark results; there is bright kamma with

bright results; there is kamma that is dark and bright with dark and

bright results; there is kamma that is neither dark nor bright, with nei-

ther dark nor bright results, which leads to the destruction of kamma.

"And what, monks, is dark kamma with dark results? Here, monks,

someone generates an afflictive volitional formation of body, speech, or

mind. Having done so, he is reborn in an afflictive world. When he is

reborn in an afflictive world, afflictive contacts touch him. Being

touched by afflictive contacts, he experiences an afflictive feeling,

extremely painful, as for example the beings in hell experience. This is

called dark kamma with dark results.

"And what, monks, is bright kamma with bright results? Here,

monks, someone generates a non-afflictive volitional formation of

body, speech, or mind. Having done so, he is reborn in a non-afflictive

world. When he is reborn in a non-afflictive world, non-afflictive con-

tacts touch him. Being touched by non-afflictive contacts, he experi-

ences a non-afflictive feeling, extremely pleasant, as for example the

devas of refulgent glory experience.

This is called bright kamma with

bright results.

"And what, monks, is dark and bright kamma with dark and bright

results? Here, monks, someone generates both an afflictive volitional

formation of body, speech, or mind and a non-afflictive volitional for-

mation of body, speech, or mind. Having done so, he is reborn in a

world that is both afflictive and non-afflictive. When he is reborn in

such a world, both afflictive and non-afflictive contacts touch him.

Being touched by such contacts, he experiences both an afflictive feel-

ing and a non-afflictive feeling, a mixture and conglomeration of

155

156 In the Buddha's Words

pleasure and pain, as for example human beings and some devas and

some beings in the lower world experience. This is called dark and

bright kamma with dark and bright results.

"And what, monks, is kamma that is neither dark nor bright, with

neither dark nor bright results, which leads to the destruction of

kamma? The volition to abandon this dark kamma with dark results,

and to abandon the bright kamma with bright results, and to abandon

the dark and bright kamma with dark and bright results—this is called

the kamma that is neither dark nor bright, with neither dark nor bright

results, which leads to the destruction of kamma.

"These, monks, are the four kinds of kamma declared by me after I

had realized them for myself by direct knowledge."

(AN 4:232; II230-32)

(2) Why Beings Fare as They Do After Death

1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was wandering

by stages in the Kosalan country with a large Sahgha of monks, and

eventually he arrived at a Kosalan brahmin village named Sala.

2. The brahmin householders of Sala heard: "It is said that the ascetic

Gotama, the Sakyan son who went forth from a Sakyan clan, has been

wandering in the Kosalan country with a large Sahgha of monks and

has come to Sala. Now a good report of Master Gotama has been circu-

lating thus: That Blessed One is an arahant... [as in Text 111,2] ... that is

perfectly complete and purified.' Now it is good to see such arahants."

3. Then the brahmin householders of Sala went to the Blessed One.

Some paid homage to him and sat down to one side; some exchanged

greetings with him and, after their greetings and cordial talk, sat down

to one side; some saluted him reverentially and sat down to one side;

some remained silent and sat down to one side.

4. When they were seated, they said to the Blessed One: "Master

Gotama, what is the cause and condition why some beings here, on

the breakup of the body, after death, are reborn in a state of misery, in

a bad destination, in the lower world, in hell? And what is the cause

and condition why some beings here, on the breakup of the body, after

death, are reborn in a good destination, in a heavenly world?"

5. "Householders, it is by reason of unrighteous conduct, conduct

not in accordance with the Dhamma, that some beings here, on the

The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 157

breakup of the body, after death, are reborn in a state of misery, in a bad

destination, in the lower world, in hell. It is by reason of righteous con-

duct, conduct in accordance with the Dhamma, that some beings here,

on the breakup of the body, after death, are reborn in a good destina-

tion, in a heavenly world."

6. "We do not understand the detailed meaning of Master Gotama's

statement, which he has spoken in brief without expounding the

detailed meaning. It would be good if Master Gotama would teach us

the Dhamma so that we might understand the detailed meaning of his

statement."

"Then, householders, listen and attend closely to what I shall say."

"Yes, venerable sir," they replied. The Blessed One said this:

7. "Householders, there are three kinds of unrighteous bodily con-

duct, conduct not in accordance with the Dhamma. There are four

kinds of unrighteous verbal conduct, conduct not in accordance with

the Dhamma. There are three kinds of unrighteous mental conduct,

conduct not in accordance with the Dhamma.

8. "And how, householders, are there three kinds of unrighteous

bodily conduct, conduct not in accordance with the Dhamma? Here

someone kills living beings; he is murderous, bloody-handed, given

to blows and violence, merciless to living beings. He takes what is not

given; he takes by way of theft the wealth and property of others in the

village or forest. He commits sexual misconduct; he has intercourse

with women who are protected by their mother, father, mother and

father, brother, sister, or relatives, who have a husband, who are pro-

tected by law, and even with those already engaged. That is how there

are three kinds of unrighteous bodily conduct, conduct not in accor-

dance with the Dhamma.

9. "And how, householders, are there four kinds of unrighteous ver-

bal conduct, conduct not in accordance with the Dhamma? Here

someone speaks falsehood; when summoned to a court, or to a meet-

ing, or to his relatives' presence, or to his guild, or to the royal family's

presence, and questioned as a witness thus: 'So, good man, tell what

you know,' not knowing, he says, T know,' or knowing, he says, T do

not know'; not seeing, he says, T see,' or seeing, he says, T do not see';

in full awareness he speaks falsehood for his own ends, or for

another's ends, or for some trifling worldly end. He speaks mali-

ciously; he repeats elsewhere what he has heard here in order to

158 In the Buddha's Words

divide [those people] from these, or he repeats to these people what he

has heard elsewhere in order to divide [these people] from those; thus

he is one who divides those who are united, a creator of divisions, who

enjoys discord, rejoices in discord, delights in discord, a speaker of

words that create discord. He speaks harshly; he utters such words as

are rough, hard, hurtful to others, offensive to others, bordering on

anger, not conducive to concentration. He engages in idle chatter; he

speaks at the wrong time, speaks what is not fact, speaks what is use-

less, speaks contrary to the Dhamma and the Discipline; at the wrong

time he speaks such words as are worthless, unreasonable, immoder-

ate, and unbeneficial. That is how there are four kinds of unrighteous

verbal conduct, conduct not in accordance with the Dhamma.

10. "And how, householders, are there three kinds of unrighteous

mental conduct, conduct not in accordance with the Dhamma? Here

someone is covetous; he covets the wealth and property of others thus:

'Oh, may what belongs to another be mine!' Or he has a mind of ill

will and intentions of hate thus: 'May these beings be slain and slaugh-

tered, may they be cut off, perish, or be annihilated!' Or he has wrong

view, distorted vision, thus: 'There is nothing given, nothing offered,

nothing sacrificed; no fruit or result of good and bad actions; no this

world, no other world; no mother, no father; no beings who are reborn

spontaneously; no good and virtuous ascetics and brahmins in the

world who have themselves realized by direct knowledge and declare

this world and the other world.'

That is how there are three kinds of

unrighteous mental conduct, conduct not in accordance with the

Dhamma. So, householders, it is by reason of such unrighteous con-

duct, such conduct not in accordance with the Dhamma, that some

beings here on the breakup of the body, after death, are reborn in a

state of misery, in a bad destination, in the lower world, in hell.

11. "Householders, there are three kinds of righteous bodily con-

duct, conduct in accordance with the Dhamma. There are four kinds of

righteous verbal conduct, conduct in accordance with the Dhamma.

There are three kinds of righteous mental conduct, conduct in accor-

dance with the Dhamma.

12. "And how, householders, are there three kinds of righteous bod-

ily conduct, conduct in accordance with the Dhamma? Here someone,

abandoning the destruction of life, abstains from the destruction of life;

with rod and weapon laid aside, conscientious, merciful, he dwells

The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 159

compassionate to all living beings. Abandoning the taking of what is

not given, he abstains from taking what is not given; he does not take

by way of theft the wealth and property of others in the village or in the

forest. Abandoning sexual misconduct, he abstains from sexual mis-

conduct; he does not have intercourse with women who are protected

by their mother, father, mother and father, brother, sister, or relatives,

ho have a husband, who are protected by law, or with those already

engaged. That is how there are three kinds of righteous bodily con-

duct, conduct in accordance with the Dhamma.

13. "And how, householders, are there four kinds of righteous ver-

bal conduct, conduct in accordance with the Dhamma? Here someone,

abandoning false speech, abstains from false speech; when summoned

to a court, or to a meeting, or to his relatives' presence, or to his guild,

or to the royal family's presence, and questioned as a witness thus: 'So,

good man, tell what you know,' not knowing, he says, T do not know,'

or knowing, he says, T know'; not seeing, he says, T do not see,' or see-

ing, he says, T see'; he does not in full awareness speak falsehood for

his own ends, or for another's ends, or for some trifling worldly end.

Abandoning malicious speech, he abstains from malicious speech; he

does not repeat elsewhere what he has heard here in order to divide

[those people] from these, nor does he repeat to these people what he

has heard elsewhere in order to divide [these people] from those; thus

he is one who reunites those who are divided, a promoter of friend-

ships, who enjoys concord, rejoices in concord, delights in concord, a

speaker of words that promote concord. Abandoning harsh speech, he

abstains from harsh speech; he speaks such words as are gentle, pleas-

ing to the ear, and loveable, as go to the heart, are courteous, desired

by many, and agreeable to many. Abandoning idle chatter, he abstains

from idle chatter; he speaks at the right time, speaks what is fact,

speaks on what is good, speaks on the Dhamma and the Discipline; at

the right time he speaks such words as are worth recording, reasonable,

moderate, and beneficial. That is how there are four kinds of righteous

verbal conduct, conduct in accordance with the Dhamma.

14. "And how, householders, are there three kinds of righteous men-

tal conduct, conduct in accordance with the Dhamma? Here someone

is not covetous; he does not covet the wealth and property of others

thus: 'Oh, may what belongs to another be mine!' His mind is without

ill will, and he has intentions free from hate thus: 'May these beings be

160 In the Buddha's Words

free from enmity, affliction, and anxiety! May they live happily!' He

has right view, undistorted vision, thus: There is what is given and

what is offered and what is sacrificed; there is fruit and result of good

and bad actions; there is this world and the other world; there is

mother and father; there are beings who are reborn spontaneously;

there are good and virtuous ascetics and brahmins in the world who

have themselves realized by direct knowledge and declare this world

and the other world.' That is how there are three kinds of righteous

mental conduct, conduct in accordance with the Dhamma. So, house-

holders, it is by reason of such righteous conduct, such conduct in

accordance with the Dhamma that some beings here, on the breakup

of the body, after death, are reborn in a good destination, even in a

heavenly world.

15. "If, householders, one who observes righteous conduct, conduct

in accordance with the Dhamma, should wish: 'Oh, that on the

breakup of the body, after death, may I be reborn in the company of

well-to-do nobles!' it is possible that, on the breakup of the body, after

death, he will be reborn in the company of well-to-do nobles. Why is

that? Because he observes righteous conduct, conduct in accordance

with the Dhamma.

16-17. "If, householders, one who observes righteous conduct, con-

duct in accordance with the Dhamma, should wish: 'Oh, that on the

breakup of the body, after death, may I be reborn in the company of

well-to-do brahmins!... in the company of well-to-do householders!' it

is possible that, on the breakup of the body, after death, he will be

reborn in the company of well-to-do householders. Why is that?

Because he observes righteous conduct, conduct in accordance with

the Dhamma.

18-42. "If, householders, one who observes righteous conduct,

conduct in accordance with the Dhamma, should wish: 'Oh, that on

the breakup of the body, after death, may I be reborn in the company

of the devas of the realm of the Four Great Kings!... in the company

of the Tavatimsa devas ... the Yama devas ... the Tusita devas ... the

devas who delight in creating ... the devas who wield power over

others' creations ... the devas of Brahma's company ... the devas of

radiance

... the devas of limited radiance ... the devas of immeas-

urable radiance ... the devas of streaming radiance ... the devas of

glory ... the devas of limited glory ... the devas of immeasurable

The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 161

glory ... the devas of refulgent glory ... the devas of great fruit ...

the aviha devas ... the atappu devas ... the sudassa devas ... the sudassi

devas ... the akanittha devas ... the devas of the base of the infinity of

space ... the devas of the base of the infinity of consciousness ... the

devas of the base of nothingness ... the devas of the base of neither-

perception-nor-non-perception!' it is possible that on the breakup of

the body, after death, he will be reborn in the company of the devas

of the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception. Why is that?

Because he observes righteous conduct, conduct in accordance with

the Dhamma.

43. "If, householders, one who observes conduct in accordance with

the Dhamma, righteous conduct, should wish: 'Oh, by realizing it for

myself with direct knowledge, may I in this very life enter upon and

dwell in the liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom, that is taintless

with the destruction of the taints!' it is possible that, by realizing it for

himself with direct knowledge, in this very life he will enter upon and

dwell in the liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom, that is taintless

with the destruction of the taints. Why is that? Because he observes

righteous conduct, conduct in accordance with the Dhamma."

44. When this was said, the brahmin householders of Sala said to

the Blessed One: "Magnificent, Master Gotama! Magnificent, Master

Gotama! Master Gotama has made the Dhamma clear in many ways,

as though he were turning upright what had been overthrown, reveal-

ing what was hidden, showing the way to one who was lost, or hold-

ing up a lamp in the darkness so those with good eyesight can see

forms. We now go for refuge to Master Gotama, to the Dhamma, and

to the Sahgha of monks. Let Master Gotama accept us as lay followers

who have gone for refuge from today until life's end."

(MN 41: Saleyyaka Sutta; 1286-90)

(3) Kamma and Its Fruits

1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living at

Savatthi in Jeta's Grove, Anathapindika's Park.

2. Then the brahmin student Subha, Todeyya's son, went to the

Blessed One and exchanged greetings with him. When this courteous

and amiable talk was finished, he sat down at one side and asked the

Blessed One:

162 In the Buddha's Words

3. "Master Gotama, why is it that human beings are seen to be infe-

rior and superior? For people are seen to be short-lived and long-lived,

sickly and healthy, ugly and beautiful, without influence and influen-

tial, poor and wealthy, low born and high born, stupid and wise. Why

is it, Master Gotama, that human beings are seen to be inferior and

superior?"

4. "Student, beings are owners of their actions, heirs of their actions;

they originate from their actions, are bound to their actions, have their

actions as their refuge. It is action that distinguishes beings as inferior

and superior."

"I do not understand in detail the meaning of Master Gotama's

statement, which he spoke in brief without expounding the meaning

in detail. It would be good if Master Gotama would teach me the

Dhamma so that I might understand in detail the meaning of his

statement."

"Then, student, listen and attend closely to what I shall say."

"Yes, sir," Subha replied. The Blessed One said this:

5. "Here, student, some man or woman kills living beings and is

murderous, bloody-handed, given to blows and violence, merciless to

living beings. Because of performing and undertaking such action, on

the breakup of the body, after death, he is reborn in a state of misery,

in a bad destination, in the lower world, in hell. But if on the breakup

of the body, after death, he is not reborn in a state of misery, in a bad

destination, in the lower world, in hell, but instead comes back to the

human state, then wherever he is reborn he is short-lived.

This is the

way, student, that leads to short life, namely, one kills living beings

and is murderous, bloody-handed, given to blows and violence, mer-

ciless to living beings.

6. "But here, student, some man or woman, abandoning the destruc-

tion of life, abstains from the destruction of life; with rod and weapon

laid aside, conscientious, merciful, he dwells compassionate to all liv-

ing beings. Because of performing and undertaking such action, on the

breakup of the body, after death, he is reborn in a good destination, in

a heavenly world. But if on the breakup of the body, after death, he is

not reborn in a good destination, in a heavenly world, but instead

comes back to the human state, then wherever he is reborn he is long-

lived.

This is the way, student, that leads to long life, namely, aban-

doning the destruction of life, one abstains from the destruction of life;

The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 163

vvith rod and weapon laid aside, conscientious, merciful, one dwells

compassionate to all living beings.

7. "Here, student, some man or woman is given to injuring beings

with the hand, with a clod, with a stick, or with a knife. Because of per-

forming and undertaking such action, on the breakup of the body, after

death, he is reborn in a state of misery.... But if instead he comes back

to the human state, then wherever he is reborn he is sickly. This is the

way, student, that leads to sickliness, namely, one is given to injuring

beings with the hand, with a clod, with a stick, or with a knife.

8. "But here, student, some man or woman is not given to injuring

beings with the hand, with a clod, with a stick, or with a knife. Because

of performing and undertaking such action, on the breakup of the

body, after death, he is reborn in a good destination.... But if instead he

comes back to the human state, then wherever he is reborn he is

healthy. This is the way, student, that leads to health, namely, one is not

given to injuring beings with the hand, with a clod, with a stick, or

with a knife.

9. "Here, student, some man or woman is of an angry and irritable

character; even when criticized a little, he is offended, becomes angry,

hostile, and resentful, and displays anger, hate, and bitterness. Because

of performing and undertaking such action ... he is reborn in a state of

misery... But if instead he comes back to the human state, then wher-

ever he is reborn he is ugly. This is the way, student, that leads to ugli-

ness, namely, one is of an angry and irritable character ... and displays

anger, hate, and bitterness.

10. "But here, student, some man or woman is not of an angry and

irritable character; even when criticized a little, he is not offended, does

not become angry, hostile, and resentful, and does not display anger,

hate, and bitterness. Because of performing and undertaking such

action ... he is reborn in a good destination.... But if instead he comes

back to the human state, then wherever he is reborn he is beautiful.

This is the way, student, that leads to being beautiful, namely, one is not

of an angry and irritable character ... and does not display anger, hate,

and bitterness.

11. "Here,

student, some man or woman is envious, one who envies,

resents, and begrudges the gains, honor, respect, reverence, salutations,

and veneration received by others. Because of performing and under-

taking such action ... he is reborn in a state of misery... But if instead

164 In the Buddha's Words

he comes back to the human state, then wherever he is reborn he is

without influence. This is the way, student, that leads to being without

influence, namely, one is envious ... toward the gains, honor, respect,

reverence, salutations, and veneration received by others.

12. "But here, student, some man or woman is not envious, one who

does not envy, resent, and begrudge the gains, honor, respect, rever-

ence, salutations, and veneration received by others. Because of per-

forming and undertaking such action ... he is reborn in a good

destination.... But if instead he comes back to the human state, then

wherever he is reborn he is influential. This is the way, student, that

leads to being influential, namely, one is not envious ... toward the

gains, honor, respect, reverence, salutations, and veneration received

by others.

13. "Here, student, some man or woman does not give food, drink,

clothing, carriages, garlands, scents, unguents, beds, dwelling, and

lamps to ascetics or brahmins. Because of performing and undertaking

such action ... he is reborn in a state of misery... But if instead he

comes back to the human state, then wherever he is reborn he is poor.

This is the way, student, that leads to poverty, namely, one does not

give food ... and lamps to ascetics or brahmins.

14. "But here, student, some man or woman gives food ... and lamps

to ascetics or brahmins. Because of performing and undertaking such

action ... he is reborn in a good destination.... But if instead he comes

back to the human state, then wherever he is reborn he is wealthy. This

is the way, student, that leads to wealth, namely, one gives food ... and

lamps to ascetics or brahmins.

15. "Here, student, some man or woman is obstinate and arrogant;

he does not pay homage to one who should receive homage, does not

rise up for one in whose presence he should rise up, does not offer a

seat to one who deserves a seat, does not make way for one for whom

he should make way, and does not honor, respect, revere, and vener-

ate one who should be honored, respected, revered, and venerated.

Because of performing and undertaking such action ... he is reborn in

a state of misery.... But if instead he comes back to the human state,

then wherever he is reborn he is low born. This is the way, student,

that leads to low birth, namely, one is obstinate and arrogant ... and

does not honor, respect, revere, and venerate one who should be hon-

ored, respected, revered, and venerated.

The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 165

\6. "But here, student, some man or woman is not obstinate and

arrogant; he pays homage to one who should receive homage, rises up

for one in whose presence he should rise up, offers a seat to one who

deserves a seat, makes way for one for whom he should make way,

and honors, respects, reveres, and venerates one who should be hon-

ored, respected, revered, and venerated. Because of performing and

undertaking such action ... he is reborn in a good destination.... But if

instead he comes back to the human state, then wherever he is reborn

he is high born. This is the way, student, that leads to high birth,

namely, one is not obstinate and arrogant ... and honors, respects,

reveres, and venerates one who should be honored, respected, revered,

and venerated.

17. "Here, student, some man or woman does not visit an ascetic or

a brahmin and ask: 'Venerable sir, what is wholesome? What is

unwholesome? What is blamable? What is blameless? What should

be cultivated? What should not be cultivated? What kind of action

will lead to my harm and suffering for a long time? What kind of

action will lead to my welfare and happiness for a long time?' Because

of performing and undertaking such action ... he is reborn in a state

of misery.... But if instead he comes back to the human state, then

wherever he is reborn he is stupid. This is the way, student, that leads

to stupidity, namely, one does not visit an ascetic or brahmin and ask

such questions.

18. "But here, student, some man or woman visits an ascetic or a

brahmin and asks: 'Venerable sir, what is wholesome?... What kind of

action will lead to my welfare and happiness for a long time?' Because

of performing and undertaking such action ... he is reborn in a good

destination.... But if instead he comes back to the human state, then

wherever he is reborn he is wise. This is the way, student, that leads

to wisdom, namely, one visits an ascetic or brahmin and asks such

questions.

19. "Thus, student, the way that leads to short life makes people

short-lived, the way that leads to long life makes people long-lived;

the way that leads to sickliness makes people sickly, the way that leads

to health makes people healthy; the way that leads to ugliness makes

people ugly, the way that leads to beauty makes people beautiful; the

way that leads to being uninfluential makes people uninfluential, the

Way that leads to being influential makes people influential; the way

166 In the Buddha's Words

that leads to poverty makes people poor, the way that leads to wealth

makes people wealthy; the way that leads to low birth makes people

low born, the way that leads to high birth makes people high born; the

way that leads to stupidity makes people stupid, the way that leads to

wisdom makes people wise.

20. "Beings are owners of their actions, heirs of their actions; they

originate from their actions, are bound to their actions, have their

actions as their refuge. It is action that distinguishes beings as inferior

and superior."

21. When this was said, the brahmin student Subha, Todeyya's

son, said to the Blessed One: "Magnificent, Master Gotama! Magnif-

icent, Master Gotama!... [as in preceding text] ... Let Master Gotama

accept me as a lay follower who has gone for refuge from today until

life's end."

(MN 135: Culakammavibhanga Sutta; III 202-6)

2. MERIT: THE KEY TO GOOD FORTUNE

(1) Meritorious Deeds

"Monks, do not fear meritorious deeds. This is an expression denoting

happiness, what is desirable, wished for, dear, and agreeable, that is,

meritorious deeds. For I know full well, monks, that for a long time I

experienced desirable, wished for, dear, and agreeable results from

often performing meritorious deeds.

"Having cultivated for seven years a mind of loving-kindness, for

seven eons of contraction and expansion I did not return to this

world. Whenever the eon contracted I reached the plane of streaming

radiance, and when the eon expanded I arose in an empty divine

mansion. And there I was Brahma, the great Brahma, the unvan-

quished victor, the all-seeing, the all-powerful. Thirty-six times I was

Sakka, ruler of the devas. And many hundreds of times I was a

wheel-turning monarch, righteous, a king of righteousness, con-

queror of the four regions of the earth, maintaining stability in the

land, in possession of the seven treasures. What need is there to speak

of mere local kingship?

"It occurred to me, monks, to wonder: 'Of what kind of deed of

mine is this the fruit? Of what deed's ripening am I now of such great

The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 167

accomplishment and power?' And then it occurred to me: 'It is the fruit

of three kinds of deeds of mine, the ripening of three kinds of deeds

that I am now of such great accomplishment and power: deeds of giv-

ing, of self-mastery, and of refraining.'"

(It 22; 14-15)

(2) Three Bases of Merit

"There are, O monks, three ways of making merit. What three? There

are ways of making merit by giving, by moral discipline, and by the

development of meditation.

"There is a person who has practiced the making of merit by giving

only to a limited degree; and, likewise to a limited degree, he has prac-

ticed the making of merit by moral discipline; but he has not under-

taken the making of merit by meditation. With the breakup of the

body, after death, he will be reborn among humans in an unfavorable

condition.

"Another person has practiced the making of merit by giving as well

as by moral discipline to a high degree; but he has not undertaken the

making of merit by meditation. With the breakup of the body, after

death, he will be reborn among humans in a favorable condition.

"Or he will be reborn in the company of the devas of the Four Great

Kings. And there, the Four Great Kings, who had practiced to a very

high degree the making of merit by giving and by moral discipline,

surpass the devas of their realm in ten respects: in divine lifespan,

divine beauty, divine happiness, divine fame, divine power; and in

divine sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and touches.

"Or he will be reborn in the company of the Tavatimsa devas. And

there, Sakka, ruler of the devas, who had practiced the making of merit

by giving and by moral discipline to a very high degree, surpasses the

devas of their realm in ten respects: in divine lifespan, divine beauty,

divine happiness, divine fame, divine power; and in divine sights,

sounds, smells, tastes, and touches.

[Similar statements are made for rebirth among the Yama devas, Tusita

devas, the devas who delight in creating, the devas who wield power over

others' creations, and for the respective rulers of these realms.]

"These, monks, are the three ways of making merit."

(AN 8:36; IV 241-43)

168 In the Buddha's Words

(3) The Best Kinds of Confidence

"Monks, there are these four best kinds of confidence. What four?

"To whatever extent there are beings, whether footless or with two

feet, four feet, or many feet, whether having form or formless, whether

percipient, non-percipient, or neither percipient nor non-percipient,

the Tathagata, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One is declared

the best among them. Those who have confidence in the Buddha have

confidence in the best, and for those who have confidence in the best,

the result is best.

"To whatever extent there are things that are conditioned, the Noble

Eightfold Path is declared the best among them. Those who have con-

fidence in the Noble Eightfold Path have confidence in the best, and for

those who have confidence in the best, the result is best.

"To whatever extent there are things whether conditioned or uncon-

ditioned, dispassion is declared the best among them, that is, the crush-

ing of pride, the removal of thirst, the uprooting of attachment, the

termination of the round, the destruction of craving, dispassion, cessa-

tion, Nibbana. Those who have confidence in the Dhamma have con-

fidence in the best, and for those who have confidence in the best, the

result is best.

"To whatever extent there are communities or groups, the

Tathagata's Sahgha of disciples is declared the best among them, that

is, the four pairs of persons, the eight types of individuals—this Sahgha

of the Blessed One's disciples is worthy of gifts, worthy of hospitality,

worthy of offerings, worthy of reverential salutation, the unsurpassed

field of merit for the world. Those who have confidence in the Sahgha

have confidence in the best, and for those who have confidence in the

best, the result is best."

For those who have confidence as the best,

For those who understand the best Dhamma,

For those who have confidence in the Buddha,

The unsurpassed one worthy of offerings;

For those who have confidence in the Dhamma,

In blissful dispassion, perfect peace;

For those who have confidence in the Sahgha,

The field of merit unsurpassed;

The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 169

For those giving gifts to the best,

The best kind of merit increases:

The best lifespan, beauty, and fame,

Good reputation, happiness, and strength.

Whether he becomes a deva or a human being,

The wise one who gives of the best,

Concentrated upon the best Dhamma,

Rejoices when he has attained to the best.

(AN 4:34; II34-35)

3. GIVING

(1) If People Knew the Result of Giving

"O monks, if people knew, as I know, the result of giving and sharing,

they would not eat without having given, nor would they allow the

stain of niggardliness to obsess them and take root in their minds. Even

if it were their last morsel, their last mouthful, they would not eat with-

out having shared it, if there were someone to share it with. But,

monks, as people do not know, as I know, the result of giving and shar-

ing, they eat without having given, and the stain of niggardliness

obsesses them and takes root in their minds."

(It 26; 18-19)

(2) Reasons for Giving

"There are, O monks, eight reasons for giving. What eight? People may

give out of affection; or in an angry mood; or out of stupidity; or out

of fear; or with the thought: 'Such gifts have been given before by my

father and grandfather and it was done by them before; hence it would

be unworthy of me to give up this old family tradition'; or with the

thought, 'By giving this gift, I shall be reborn in a good destination, in

a heavenly world, after death'; or with the thought, 'When giving this

gift, my heart will be glad, and happiness and joy will arise in me'; or

one gives because it ennobles and adorns the mind."

(AN 8:33; IV 236-37)

170 In the Buddha's Words

(3) The Gift of Food

On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling among the Koliyans, at

a town called Sajjanela. One morning the Blessed One dressed, took his

upper robe and bowl, and went to the dwelling of Suppavasa, a

Koliyan lady. Having arrived there, he sat down on the seat prepared

for him. The Koliyan lady Suppavasa attended to the Blessed One per-

sonally and served him with various kinds of delicious food. When

the Blessed One had finished his meal and had withdrawn his hand

from the bowl, the Koliyan lady Suppavasa sat down to one side, and

the Blessed One addressed her as follows:

"Suppavasa, a noble female disciple, by giving food, gives four

things to those who receive it. What four? She gives long life, beauty,

happiness, and strength. By giving long life, she herself will be

endowed with long life, human or divine. By giving beauty, she herself

will be endowed with beauty, human or divine. By giving happiness,

she herself will be endowed with happiness, human or divine. By giv-

ing strength, she herself will be endowed with strength, human or

divine. A noble female disciple, by giving food, gives those four things

to those who receive it."

(AN 4:57; II 62-63)

(4) A Superior Person's Gifts

"There are, O monks, these five gifts of a superior person. What five?

"He gives a gift out of faith; he gives a gift respectfully; he gives a gift

at the right time; he gives a gift with a generous heart; he gives a gift

without denigration.

"Because he gives a gift out of faith, wherever the result of that gift

ripens he becomes rich, affluent, and wealthy, and he is handsome,

comely, graceful, endowed with supreme beauty of complexion.

"Because he gives a gift respectfully, wherever the result of that gift

ripens he becomes rich, affluent, and wealthy, and his children and

wives, his slaves, messengers, and workers are obedient, lend their

ears to him, and apply their minds to understand him.

"Because he gives a gift at the right time, wherever the result of that

gift ripens he becomes rich, affluent, and wealthy, and benefits come to

him at the right time, in abundant measure.

The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 171

"Because he gives a gift with a generous heart, wherever the result

of that gift ripens he becomes rich, affluent, and wealthy, and his mind

inclines to the enjoyment of excellent things among the five cords of

sensual pleasure.

"Because he gives a gift without denigrating himself and others,

wherever the result of that gift ripens he becomes rich, affluent, and

wealthy, and no loss of his wealth takes place from any quarter,

whether from fire, floods, the king, bandits, or unloved heirs.

"These, monks, are the five gifts of a superior person."

(AN 5:148; III 172-73)

(5) Mutual Support

"Monks, brahmins and householders are very helpful to you. They

provide you with the requisites of robes, almsfood, lodgings, and med-

icines in time of sickness. And you, monks, are very helpful to brah-

mins and householders, as you teach them the Dhamma that is good

in the beginning, the middle, and the end, with the correct meaning

and wording, and you proclaim the spiritual life in its fulfillment and

complete purity. Thus, monks, this spiritual life is lived with mutual

support for the purpose of crossing the flood and making a complete

end of suffering."

(It

107;

111)

(6) Rebirth on Account of Giving

"There are, O monks, eight kinds of rebirth on account of giving. What

eight?

"Here, monks, a certain person makes a gift to an ascetic or a brah-

min, offering him food, drink, clothing, and vehicles; garlands, scents,

and unguents; bedding, lodging, and lighting. In making the gift, he

hopes for a reward. He now notices affluent nobles, brahmins, or

householders enjoying themselves provided and furnished with the

five objects of sensual pleasure, and he thinks: 'Oh, with the breakup

of the body, after death, may I be reborn among them!' And he sets his

mind on that thought, keeps to it firmly, and fosters it. This thought of

his aims at what is low, and if not developed to what is higher it will

lead him to just such a rebirth. With the breakup of the body, after

172 In the Buddha's Words

death, he will be reborn among affluent nobles, brahmins, or house-

holders. This, however, I declare only for the morally pure, not for the

immoral; for it is due to his purity, monks, that the heart's desire of the

morally pure succeeds.

"Then again, a certain person makes a gift to an ascetic or a brahmin,

offering him food ... or lighting. In making the gift, he hopes for a

reward. He now hears of the long life, the beauty, and the great happi-

ness of the devas in the realm of the Four Great Kings ... the Tavatimsa

devas ... the Yama devas ... the Tusita devas ... the devas who delight

in creating ... the devas who wield power over others' creations, and

he wishes to be reborn among them. He sets his mind on that thought,

keeps to it firmly, and fosters it. This thought of his aims at what is

low, and if not developed to what is higher, it will lead him to just such

a rebirth. After his death, when his body breaks up, he will be reborn

among the devas in the realm of the Four Great Kings ... or among the

devas who wield power over others' creations. This, however, I declare

only for the morally pure, not for the immoral; for it is due to his purity,

monks, that the heart's desire of the morally pure succeeds.

"Then again, a certain person makes a gift to an ascetic or a brahmin,

offering him food ... or lighting. He now hears of the long life, the

beauty, and the great happiness of the devas of Brahma's company,

and he wishes to be reborn among them. He sets his mind on that

thought, keeps to it firmly, and fosters it. This thought of his aims at

what is low, and if not developed to what is higher, it will lead him to

just such a rebirth. After his death, when his body breaks up, he will be

reborn among the devas of Brahma's company. This, however, I declare

only for the morally pure, not for the immoral; only for one free of lust,

not for one who is lustful.

Because he is without lust, monks, the

heart's desire of the morally pure succeeds.

"These, monks, are the eight kinds of rebirth on account of giving."

(AN 8:35; IV 239-41)

4. MORAL DISCIPLINE

(1) The Five Precepts

"There are, O monks, eight streams of merit, streams of the wholesome,

nourishments of happiness, that are heavenly, ripening in happiness,

The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 173

conducive to heaven, and that lead to whatever is wished for, loved,

nd agreeable, to one's welfare and happiness. What are the eight?

"Here, monks, a noble disciple has gone for refuge to the Buddha.

This is the first stream of merit, stream of the wholesome, nourishment

of happiness, that is heavenly, ripening in happiness, conducive to

heaven, and that leads to whatever is wished for, loved, and agreeable,

to one's welfare and happiness.

"Further, a noble disciple has gone for refuge to the Dhamma. This

is the second stream of merit ... that leads to whatever is wished for,

loved, and agreeable, to one's welfare and happiness.

"Further, a noble disciple has gone for refuge to the Sahgha. This is

the third stream of merit... that leads to whatever is wished for, loved,

and agreeable, to one's welfare and happiness.

"There are further, monks, these five gifts—pristine, of long stand-

ing, traditional, ancient, unadulterated and never before adulterated,

that are not being adulterated and that will not be adulterated, not

despised by wise ascetics and brahmins. What are these five gifts?

"Here, monks, a noble disciple gives up the destruction of life and

abstains from it. By abstaining from the destruction of life, the noble

disciple gives to immeasurable beings freedom from fear, hostility, and

oppression. By giving to immeasurable beings freedom from fear, hos-

tility, and oppression, he himself will enjoy immeasurable freedom

from fear, hostility, and oppression. This is the first of those great gifts

and the fourth stream of merit.

"Further, monks, a noble disciple gives up the taking of what is not

given and abstains from it. By abstaining from taking what is not given,

the noble disciple gives to immeasurable beings freedom from fear....

This is the second of those great gifts and the fifth stream of merit.

"Further, monks, a noble disciple gives up sexual misconduct and

abstains from it. By abstaining from sexual misconduct, the noble dis-

ciple gives to immeasurable beings freedom from fear.... This is the

third of those great gifts and the sixth stream of merit.

"Further, monks, a noble disciple gives up false speech and abstains

from it. By abstaining from false speech, the noble disciple gives to

immeasurable beings freedom from fear.... This is the fourth of those

great gifts and the seventh stream of merit.

"Further, monks, a noble disciple gives up wines, liquors, and intox-

icants, the basis for negligence, and abstains from them. By abstaining

174 In the Buddha's Words

from wines, liquors, and intoxicants, the noble disciple gives to

immeasurable beings freedom from fear, hostility, end oppression. By

giving to immeasurable beings freedom from fear, hostility, and

oppression, he himself will enjoy immeasurable freedom from fear,

hostility, and oppression. This is the fifth of those great gifts and the

eighth stream of merit.

"These, monks, are the eight streams of merit, streams of the whole-

some, nourishments of happiness, which are heavenly, ripening in hap-

piness, conducive to heaven, and which lead to whatever is wished

for, loved, and agreeable, to one's welfare and happiness."

(AN 8:39; IV 245-47)

(2) The Uposatha Observance

"When, O monks, the uposatha observance is complete in eight fac-

tors, it is of great fruit and benefit, luminous and pervasive. And how

is the uposatha observance complete in eight factors?

"Here, monks, a noble disciple reflects thus: 'As long as they live the

arahants abandon the destruction of life, abstain from the destruction

of life; with the rod and weapon laid aside, they are conscientious and

merciful and dwell compassionate toward all living beings. Today I

too, for this day and night, will do likewise. I will imitate the arahants

in this respect, and the uposatha observance will be fulfilled by me.'

This is the first factor it possesses.

"Further, he reflects: 'As long as they live the arahants abandon the

taking of what is not given, abstain from taking what is not given; they

accept only what is given, expect only what is given, and dwell with

honest hearts devoid of theft. Today I too, for this day and night, will

do likewise....' This is the second factor it possesses.

"'As long as they live the arahants abandon sexual relations and

observe celibacy, living apart, refraining from the coarse practice of

sexual intercourse. Today I too, for this day and night, will do like-

wise....' This is the third factor it possesses.

'"As long as they live the arahants abandon false speech, abstain

from false speech; they are speakers of truth, adherents of truth,

trustworthy and reliable, no deceivers of the world. Today I too, for

this day and night, will do likewise....' This is the fourth factor it

possesses.

The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 175

"'As long as they live the arahants abandon wines, liquors, and

intoxicants, the basis of negligence, and abstain from them. Today I

too, for this day and night, will do likewise....' This is the fifth factor

it possesses.

'"As long as they live the arahants eat only one meal a day and refrain

from eating at night, outside the proper time.

Today I too, for this day

and night, will do likewise....' This is the sixth factor it possesses.

"'As long as they live the arahants abstain from dancing, singing,

instrumental music, and unsuitable shows, and from adorning them-

selves by wearing garlands and applying scents and ointments. Today

I too, for this day and night, will do likewise....' This is the seventh

factor it possesses.

"'As long as they live the arahants abandon the use of high and lux-

urious beds and seats and abstain from using them; they make use of

low resting places, either small beds or straw mats. Today I too, for

this day and night, will do likewise. I will imitate the arahants in this

respect, and the uposatha observance will be fulfilled by me.' This is

the eighth factor it possesses.

"When, monks, the uposatha observance is complete in these eight

factors, it is of great fruit and benefit, luminous and pervasive. And to

what extent is it of great fruit and benefit, luminous and pervasive?

"Suppose, monks, someone were to exercise sovereignty and domin-

ion over these sixteen great countries abounding in the seven precious

treasures, that is, Ahga, Magadha, Kasi, Kosala, the Vajjis, the Mallas,

the Cetis, Vamsa, the Kurus, the Pahcalas, Maccha, Surasena, Assaka,

Avanti, Gandhara, and Kamboja:

this would not be worth a sixteenth

part of the uposatha observance complete in those eight factors. For

what reason? Because human kingship is poor compared to divine

happiness.

"For the devas in the realm of the Four Great Kings a single day and

night is equivalent to fifty human years; thirty such days make up a

nionth, and twelve such months make up a year. The lifespan of the

devas in the realm of the Four Great Kings is five hundred such celes-

tial years. It is possible, monks, that if some man or woman here ob-

serves the uposatha complete in these eight factors, with the breakup

°f the body, after death, they will be reborn in the company of the

devas in the realm of the Four Great Kings. It was with reference to this

that I said human kingship is poor compared to divine happiness.

176 In the Buddha's Words

"For the Tavatimsa devas a single day and night is equivalent to a

hundred human years.... The lifespan of the Tavatimsa devas is a thou-

sand such celestial years.... For the Yama devas a single day and night

is equivalent to two hundred human years.... The lifespan of the Yama

devas is two thousand such celestial years.... For the Tusita devas, a

single day and night is equivalent to four hundred human years....

The lifespan of the Tusita devas is four thousand such celestial years....

For the devas who delight in creating, a single day and night is equiv-

alent to eight hundred human years.... The lifespan of the devas who

delight in creating is eight thousand such celestial years.... For the

devas who wield power over others' creations a single day and night

is equivalent to sixteen hundred human years; thirty such days make

up a month, and twelve such months make up a year. The lifespan of

the devas who wield power over others' creations is sixteen thousand

celestial years. It is possible, monks, that if some man or woman here

observes the uposatha complete in these eight factors, with the breakup

of the body, after death, they will be reborn in the company of the devas

who wield power over others' creations. It was with reference to this

that I said human kingship is poor compared to divine happiness."

(AN 8:41; IV 248-51)

5. MEDITATION

(1) The Development of Loving-Kindness

"Monks, whatever grounds there are for making merit productive of a

future birth, all these do not equal a sixteenth part of the liberation of

mind by loving-kindness. The liberation of mind by loving-kindness

surpasses them and shines forth, bright and brilliant.

"Just as the radiance of all the stars does not equal a sixteenth part

of the moon's radiance, but the moon's radiance surpasses them and

shines forth, bright and brilliant, even so, whatever grounds there are

for making merit productive of a future birth, all these do not equal a

sixteenth part of the liberation of mind by loving-kindness. The liber-

ation of mind by loving-kindness surpasses them and shines forth,

bright and brilliant.

"Just as in the last month of the rainy season, in the autumn, when

the sky is clear and free of clouds, the sun, on ascending, dispels the

The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 177

darkness of space and shines forth, bright and brilliant, even so,

whatever grounds there are for making merit productive of a future

birth, all these do not equal a sixteenth part of the liberation of mind

by loving-kindness. The liberation of mind by loving-kindness sur-

passes them and shines forth, bright and brilliant.

"And just as in the night, at the moment of dawn, the morning star

shines forth, bright and brilliant, even so, whatever grounds there are

for making merit productive of a future birth, all these do not equal a

sixteenth part of the liberation of mind by loving-kindness. The liber-

ation of mind by loving-kindness surpasses them and shines forth,

bright and brilliant."

(It 27; 19-21)

(2) The Four Divine Abodes

22. The brahmin student Subha, Todeyya's son, said to the Blessed One:

"Master Gotama, I have heard that the ascetic Gotama knows the path

to the company of Brahma."

"What do you think, student? Is the village of Nalakara near here,

not far from here?"

"Yes, sir, the village of Nalakara is near here, not far from here."

"What do you think, student? Suppose there was a man born and

raised in the village of Nalakara, and as soon as he had left Nalakara

they asked him about the path to the village. Would that man be slow

or hesitant in answering?"

"No, Master Gotama. Why is that? Because that man has been born

and raised in Nalakara, and is well acquainted with all the paths to

the village."

"Still, a man born and raised in the village of Nalakara might be

slow or hesitant in answering when asked about the path to the village,

but a Tathagata, when asked about the brahma world or the way lead-

ing to the brahma world, would never be slow or hesitant in answer-

ing. I understand Brahma, and I understand the brahma world, and I

understand the way leading to the brahma world, and I understand

how one should practice to be reborn in the brahma world."

23. "Master Gotama, I have heard that the ascetic Gotama teaches the

path to the company of Brahma. It would be good if Master Gotama

would teach me the path to the company of Brahma."

178 In the Buddha's Words

"Then, student, listen and attend closely to what I shall say."

"Yes, sir," he replied. The Blessed One said this:

24. "What, student, is the path to the company of Brahma? Here a

monk dwells pervading one quarter with a mind imbued with loving-

kindness, likewise the second, likewise the third, likewise the fourth;

so above, below, around, and everywhere, and to all as to himself, he

dwells pervading the all-encompassing world with a mind imbued

with loving-kindness, abundant, exalted, immeasurable, without

hostility, and without ill will. When the liberation of mind by loving-

kindness is developed in this way, no limiting action remains there,

none persists there. Just as a vigorous trumpeter could make himself

heard without difficulty in the four quarters, so too, when the liber-

ation of mind by loving-kindness is developed in this way, no limit-

ing action remains there, none persists there.

This is the path to the

company of Brahma.

25-27. "Again, a monk dwells pervading one quarter with a mind

imbued with compassion ... with a mind imbued with altruistic joy

... with a mind imbued with equanimity, likewise the second, like-

wise the third, likewise the fourth; so above, below, around, and

everywhere, and to all as to himself, he dwells pervading the all-

encompassing world with a mind imbued with equanimity, abun-

dant, exalted, immeasurable, without hostility, and without ill will.

When the liberation of mind by equanimity is developed in this way,

no limiting action remains there, none persists there. Just as a vigor-

ous trumpeter could make himself heard without difficulty in the

four quarters, so too, when the liberation of mind by equanimity is

developed in this way, no limiting action remains there, none per-

sists there. This too is the path to the company of Brahma."

(from MN 99: Subha Sutta; II 206-8)

(3) Insight Surpasses All

[The Buddha said to Anathapindika:] "In the past, householder,

there was a brahmin named Velama. He gave such a great alms offer-

ing as this: eighty-four thousand bowls of gold filled with silver;

eighty-four thousand bowls of silver filled with gold; eighty-four

thousand bronze bowls filled with bullion; eighty-four thousand ele-

phants, chariots, milch cows, maidens, and couches, many millions

The Way to a Fortunate Rebirth 179

of fine cloths, and indescribable amounts of food, drink, ointment,

and bedding.

"As great as was the alms offering that the brahmin Velama gave, it

would be even more fruitful if one would feed a single person pos-

sessed of right view.

As great as the brahmin Velama's alms offering

was, and though one would feed a hundred persons possessed of right

view, it would be even more fruitful if one would feed a single once-

returner. As great as the brahmin Velama's alms offering was, and

though one would feed a hundred once-returners, it would be even

more fruitful if one would feed a single nonreturner. As great as the

brahmin Velama's alms offering was, and though one would feed a

hundred nonreturners, it would be even more fruitful if one would

feed a single arahant. As great as the brahmin Velama's alms offering

was, and though one would feed a hundred arahants, it would be even

more fruitful if one would feed a single paccekabuddha.

As great as

the brahmin Velama's alms offering was, and though one would feed

a hundred paccekabuddhas, it would be even more fruitful if one

would feed a single Perfectly Enlightened Buddha ... it would be even

more fruitful if one would feed the Sahgha of monks headed by the

Buddha and build a monastery for the sake of the Sahgha of the four

quarters ... it would be even more fruitful if, with a trusting mind, one

would go for refuge to the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sahgha, and

would undertake the five precepts: abstaining from the destruction of

life, from taking what is not given, from sexual misconduct, from false

speech, and from the use of intoxicants. As great as all this might be, it

would be even more fruitful if one would develop a mind of loving-

kindness even for the time it takes to pull a cow's udder. And as great

as all this might be, it would be even more fruitful still if one would

develop the perception of impermanence just for the time it takes to

snap one's fingers."

(AN 9:20, abridged; IV 393-96)

VI. Deepening One's Perspective

on the World

•'•.-

INTRODUCTION

In interpreting suttas, we have to take account of the circumstances

under which they were spoken and the persons to whom they were

addressed. During the course of his long ministry, the Buddha had to

adjust his teaching to people with different capacities and needs. He

taught those given to reckless behavior to abandon their self-defeating

ways and engage in wholesome actions that yield pleasant fruits. He

taught those inclined to resign themselves to fate that present effort

determines our present quality of life as well as our future destiny. He

taught those convinced that personal existence ceases with bodily

death that living beings survive the breakup of the body and re-arise

in accordance with their kamma. He taught those not yet ripe enough

for higher attainments to aspire for rebirth among the devas, the celes-

tial beings, and to enjoy the bliss and glory of the heavens.

A blissful heavenly rebirth, however, is not the final purpose for

which the Buddha taught the Dhamma. At best it is only a temporary

waystation. The ultimate goal is the cessation of suffering, and the bliss

of the heavens, no matter how blissful, is not the same as the cessation

of suffering. According to the Buddha's teaching, all states of existence

within the round of rebirths, even the heavens, are transient, unreli-

able, bound up with pain. Thus the ultimate aim of the Dhamma is

nothing short of liberation, which means total release from the round

of birth and death.

What lies beyond the round of rebirths is an unconditioned state

called Nibbana. Nibbana transcends the conditioned world, yet it can be

attained within conditioned existence, in this very life, and experienced

as the extinction of suffering. The Buddha realized Nibbana through

his enlightenment, and for the next forty-five years of his life he endeav-

ored to help others realize it for themselves. The realization of Nibbana

comes with the blossoming of wisdom and brings perfect peace, untar-

nished happiness, and the stilling of the mind's compulsive drives.

Nibbana is the destruction of thirst, the thirst of craving. It is also the

island of safety amid the raging currents of old age, sickness, and death.

183

184 In the Buddha's Words

To guide his spiritually mature disciples toward Nibbana, the

Buddha had to steer them beyond the blissful rewards that could be

won in a future life by performing wholesome deeds. He did so

through the "world-transcending" facets of his teaching, those aspects

designed to lead disciples beyond the "triple world" of sense-sphere

existence, form-sphere existence, and formless existence. Again and

again throughout the discourses, the Buddha offered an uncompro-

mising, razor-sharp exposure of the dangers inherent in all conditioned

states of being. He sounded a clear warning signal that all states of

existence are perilous and fraught with pain. He insisted, unambigu-

ously, that the one hope of lasting security lies in complete purification

and liberation of the mind. He presented a path that cuts through igno-

rance and craving in their entirety and dispels attachment even to the

most refined states of meditative absorption.

In his "graduated discourse on the Dhamma," given to introduce

receptive newcomers to his teaching, the Buddha regularly began by

discussing such practices as giving and moral discipline. He would

extol the beauty of such virtues as generosity, harmlessness, honesty,

and self-restraint, explaining how such meritorious deeds lead to the

joys of a heavenly rebirth. At this point, he would reveal "the danger,

degradation, and defilement in sensual pleasures and the blessings of

renunciation." Having thus gradually "ripened" the minds of his audi-

ence, he would next expound the doctrine distinctive of his own teach-

ing, the Four Noble Truths: suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the

path. When the Buddha himself taught the Four Noble Truths, his pur-

pose was not to give his listeners an introductory course in "basic

Buddhism," but to awaken in them the "vision of the Dhamma," the

first direct realization of the transcendent truth that sets the disciple on

the irreversible path to liberation.

Though we sometimes read in the suttas that disciples attained their

first experience of awakening merely by listening to the Buddha

preach, this does not mean that the Dhamma is easy to understand.

Such disciples could penetrate the truth with such apparent ease

because their faculties were mature, perhaps too because they had

accumulated sufficient supporting conditions from previous lives. But

by its very nature, the world-transcending Dhamma goes against the

grain of the mundane mind. The Buddha describes the Dhamma as

"subtle, deep, and difficult to see," and one of the things that makes it

Deepening One's Perspective on the World 185

so difficult to see is its thesis that the highest happiness cannot be won

by yielding to the longings of the heart but only by subduing them.

This thesis runs utterly counter to the thought, attitudes, and actions

of people fully immersed in the world. As long as we are infatuated

with the seductive lures of sensual enjoyment, as long as we take

delight in being this or becoming that, we will regard the sublime

Dhamma as a mystery and a puzzle. The Buddha therefore realized

that the first major challenge he would face in establishing his world-

transcending Dhamma was to break the grip that sensual pleasure and

worldly attachment have upon the mind. He had to knock the mind

out of its accustomed ruts and set it moving in an altogether different

direction. He had to steer his disciples away from the lures of sensual-

ity and worldly attachment and guide them toward disenchantment,

complete dispassion, and awakening.

The requirements of this task drew upon all the Buddha's skills as a

teacher. It demanded that he make ample use of his ability to precisely

adjust his teaching to the mental proclivities of the people who came

to him for instruction. It demanded that he speak up frankly and can-

didly, even when candor bred resentment. It demanded that he enter

the fray of debate, even though he much preferred the peace of seclu-

sion. It demanded that he use similes, metaphors, and parables when-

ever concrete illustrations could give his arguments stronger appeal. It

demanded that he uphold his principles strongly whether his adver-

saries were hostile ascetics or miscreant monks within the ranks of his

own order (see the opening sections of MN 22 and MN 38, not included

in this anthology). That the Buddha succeeded so well in fulfilling this

difficult task is counted among his truly wonderful and marvelous

accomplishments. This is a point to which Text VI,1 bears eloquent

testimony.

The Buddha's task at this stage in the unfolding of his doctrine is to

impart to us a radically new education in the art of seeing. To follow

the Buddha in the direction he wants to lead us, we have to learn to see

beneath the surface glitter of pleasure, position, and power that usu-

ally enthralls us, and at the same time, to learn to see through the decep-

tive distortions of perception, thought, and views that habitually cloak

our vision. Ordinarily, we represent things to ourselves through the

refractory prism of subjective biases. These biases are shaped by our

craving and attachments, which they in turn reinforce. We see things

186 In the Buddha's Words

that we want to see; we blot out things that threaten or disturb us, that

shake our complacency, that throw into question our comforting

assumptions about ourselves and our lives. To undo this process

involves a commitment to truth that is often unsettling, but in the long

run proves exhilarating and liberating.

The education that the Buddha imparts to us brings about a deepen-

ing of our perspective on the world. To help us transform our understand-

ing and deepen our perspective on the world, he offers us three

standpoints from which we can appraise the values by which we order

our lives. These three standpoints also represent three "moments" or

steps in an unfolding process of insight that starts from our common-

sense attitudes and moves strategically toward higher knowledge,

enlightenment, and release. The three moments are: gratification

(assada), danger (adinava), and escape (nissarana). In Texts VI,2(l)-(3),

this scheme is applied to the world as a whole. Elsewhere in the

Nikayas, the scheme is applied more specifically to the four material

elements (SN 14:31-33), the five aggregates (SN 22:26-28), and the six

internal and external sense bases (SN 35:13-18). The Buddha under-

scores the importance of this scheme with the bold pronouncement

that until he was able to fully evaluate the world (or, in the texts

referred to just above, the elements, aggregates, and sense bases) in

this way, he did not claim that he had attained the unsurpassed perfect

enlightenment.

In advancing systematically through this scheme, one begins by rec-

ognizing the indubitable fact that such worldly phenomena as sense

objects, forms, and feelings give us some degree of gratification. This

gratification consists in the pleasure and joy (sukha-somanassa) we expe-

rience when we succeed in fulfilling our desires. Once we acknowl-

edge this fact, we can then probe deeper by asking whether such

pleasure and joy are entirely satisfactory. If we address this question

with utter honesty, in a dispassionate frame of mind, we will realize

that such pleasure and joy are far from satisfactory. To the contrary,

they are saddled with drawbacks and defects ranging from the trifling

to the catastrophic, defects that we perpetually hide from ourselves so

that we can continue unhindered in our quest for gratification. This is

their danger, the second moment or step of observation. The most per-

vasive danger lurking behind the innocent fagade of our worldly pleas-

ures is their inherent nature of being impermanent (anicca), bound up

Deepening One's Perspective on

with suffering and discontent (dukkha), and subject to inevitable change

and decay (viparinamadhamma).

The third moment, the moment of escape, follows from the second.

"Escape" here is not escapism, a word that implies an anxious attempt

to avoid facing one's problems by pretending they don't exist and los-

ing oneself in distractions. True escape is quite the opposite: the sanest,

most rational, most judicious course of action we can take when we

accurately recognize a genuine danger. It is our search for an exit from

a burning building, our visit to the doctor when we're beset by a per-

sistent fever, our decision to give up smoking when we understand

how it jeopardizes our health. Once we see that the objects of our

attachment are flawed, beset with hidden dangers, we then realize that

the way of escape lies in dropping our attachment to them. This is

"the removal of desire and lust, the abandoning of desire and lust"

(chandaraga-vinaya, chandaraga-pahana) referred to in the texts.

The Pali commentators, not surprisingly, connect these three

moments with the Four Noble Truths. "Gratification" implies the sec-

ond noble truth, for pleasure and joy arouse craving, the origin of suf-

fering. "Danger" is the truth of suffering itself. And "escape" is the

truth of the cessation of suffering, which also implies the Noble Eight-

fold Path, the fourth truth, the way to the cessation of suffering.

In Text VI,3 the Buddha uses this threefold scheme to make a

detailed appraisal of three major objects of attachment: sensual pleas-

ures, bodily form, and feelings. The major portion of the sutta is

devoted to an examination of the dangers in sensual pleasures. It

begins with a close-up view of the tribulations that a "clansman"—a

young householder pursuing the ancient Indian counterpart of a pro-

fessional career—might undergo in his quest for sensual gratification.

As the discourse unfolds, the scope of the examination widens from the

personal to the collective, encompassing the broader social and polit-

ical consequences of this quest. It reaches its climax in striking images

of the warfare and human devastation that follow from the frenzied

mass drive for sensual gratification. "Form" is the physical body. The

Buddha begins his treatment of form by asking the monks to consider

a beautiful young girl. He then traces the progressive stages of her

physical decay, through old age, sickness, death, and the eventual dis-

integration of the corpse until it is reduced to powdered bone. To show

the danger in "feeling," the Buddha selects the feelings of a meditating

188 In the Buddha's Words

monk in the jhanas, the meditative absorptions, the most refined mun-

dane experiences of pleasure and peace. He points out that even these

lofty feelings are impermanent, unsatisfactory, and subject to change.

Although the following texts do not explicitly apply the threefold

scheme, its underlying presence is obvious. Emphasis falls on the

aspect of danger. The two texts presented in section 4 again accentuate

the pitfalls in sensual pleasures, but do so differently from the text of

the preceding section. In Text VI,4(1), the Buddha appears in dialogue

with a pompous householder who imagines that he has "cut off all

worldly affairs." To dispel his complacency, the Buddha uses a series

of similes that expose the deceptiveness of sensual pleasures to show

him what the "cutting off of affairs" means in his own system of train-

ing. The use of similes prevails in Text VI,4(2) as well, which pits the

Buddha against a hedonist named Magandiya. The Buddha here con-

tends that sensual pleasures seem to be pleasurable only through a dis-

tortion of perception, but when seen rightly are like the fire in a

burning charcoal pit—"painful to touch, hot, and scorching." This pas-

sage includes some of the most powerful similes in the Nikayas, and

there can be little doubt that the Buddha has not used them lightly.

The use of imagery also figures prominently in Text VI,5, whose

theme is the transience of human life. Buddhist literature frequently

advises us to contemplate the certainty of death and the uncertainty of

the time of its arrival. This recommendation is not made to induce an

attitude of chronic morbidity but to help us break our infatuation with

life and develop detachment. For this reason, recollection of death has

become one of the most important subjects of Buddhist meditation.

The Buddha elsewhere says that the recollection of death "when devel-

oped and cultivated, gains a foothold in the Deathless and culminates

in the Deathless" (AN 7:46; IV 47-48). Here the transience of life is

underscored by counting up the number of days, seasons, and even

meals in a single life.

Text VT,6 is an excerpt from the Ratthapala Sutta, which recounts

the life of the disciple the Buddha called "the foremost of those who

have gone forth out of faith." Ratthapala was a young man from a well-

established family who was so deeply stirred upon hearing the Buddha

preach that he at once decided to embrace the homeless life of a monk.

The Buddha asked him to obtain his parents' permission, but his par-

ents, being strongly attached to their only son, adamantly refused to

Deepening One's Perspective on the World 189

give their consent. Ratthapala thereupon lay down on the ground and

refused to eat or drink, determined to die right there or receive the

going forth. His parents finally relented and permitted him to become

a monk on the condition that he later return to visit them. Years later,

when he visited his parents, they tried to entice him back to the house-

hold life, but since he had already attained arahantship he was now

beyond any possibility of disrobing. After leaving their home, he went

to the royal pleasure garden, where he gave a discourse to King

Koravya on "four summaries of the Dhamma." This discourse conveys

his profound insights into the depth and universality of suffering,

explaining in simple and lucid words why he, like countless other

capable men and women in the prime of life, chose to leave the com-

forts of the household for the uncertainties of the homeless state.

Craving for sensual pleasures is one trap that keeps beings bound to

the round of rebirths. Another major trap is attachment to views. Thus,

to clear the path to Nibbana, the Buddha not only had to dispel infat-

uation with sensual pleasures but also to expose the danger in views.

This is the theme of section 7.

The most dangerous of wrong views are those that deny or under-

mine the foundations of ethics. Text VI,7(1) draws together a number

of perils posed by this type of wrong view; prominent among them is

rebirth in the lower realms. Views also lead to one-sided, biased inter-

pretations of reality that we cling to as accurate and complete. People

who cling tenaciously to their own views of a particular situation often

come into conflict with those who view the same situation in a differ-

ent light. Views thus give rise to conflicts and disputes. Perhaps no

text in all of world literature has depicted this danger in dogmatic

clinging more succinctly than the famous parable of the blind men and

the elephant, included here as Text VI,7(2).

Text VI,7(3) draws a contrast between the pair of distorted views

known as eternalism (sassutavada) and annihilationism (ucchedavada),

also called, respectively, the view of existence (bhavaditthi) and the view

of nonexistence (vibhavaditthi). Eternalism affirms an eternal compo-

nent in the individual, an indestructible self, and an eternal ground of

the world, such as an all-powerful creator God. Annihilationism denies

that there is any survival beyond death, holding that the individual

comes to a complete end with the demise of the physical body. Eternal-

ism, according to the Buddha, leads to delight in existence and binds

190 In the Buddha's Words

beings to the cycle of existence. Annihilationism is often accompanied

by a disgust with existence that, paradoxically, binds its adherents to

the same existence that they loathe. As we will see below, the Buddha's

teaching of dependent origination avoids both these futile ends (see

IX, pp. 356-57).

Text VI,8 highlights a particular problem posed by eternalist views.

Such views can inspire meditators to attain states of deep meditative

bliss, which they interpret as union with a divine reality or realization

of an eternal self. From the perspective of the Buddha's teaching, how-

ever, such attainments merely create the karmic potential for rebirth

into a realm in which that meditative experience becomes the funda-

mental condition of consciousness. In other words, the attainment of

these states in the human realm generates rebirth into the correspon-

ding planes in the realm of subtle form or the formless realm. While

many religions point to a divine realm as the final answer to the human

predicament, the Buddha's teaching holds that these worlds offer no

final outlet from the impermanence and misery of samsara.

The text cited here shows that certain meditators attain the four

"divine abodes" and take rebirth in the corresponding planes of the

brahma world, where they might abide even for as long as five hundred

great eons. Eventually, however, they must inevitably pass away and

may then fall into the unfortunate realms of rebirth. Similar texts not

included here (AN 3:114,4:124) say the same respectively about realms

of rebirth corresponding to the jhanas and the formless attainments.

The two suttas that constitute the final section of this chapter again

take up the unsatisfactoriness and insecurity of conditioned existence,

reinforcing their message with dramatic imagery. In Text VI,9(1), the

Buddha declares that the amount of tears we have shed while wan-

dering through the round of rebirths is greater than the water in the

four great oceans. In Text VI,9(2), he tells a group of thirty monks that

the amount of blood they have shed when they were slaughtered and

executed in the round of rebirths is greater than the water in the four

great oceans. According to the compilers of the sutta, the impact of this

discourse upon the thirty monks was so powerful that all attained full

liberation on the spot.

VI. DEEPENING ONE'S

PERSPECTIVE ON THE WORLD

1. FOUR WONDERFUL THINGS

"Monks, on the manifestation of the Tathagata, the Arahant, the Per-

fectly Enlightened One, four wonderful and marvelous things appear.

What four?

"People for the most part delight in attachment, take delight in

attachment, rejoice in attachment. But when the Dhamma of non-

attachment is taught by the Tathagata, people wish to listen to it, lend

an ear, and try to understand it. This is the first wonderful and mar-

velous thing that appears on the manifestation of the Tathagata, the

Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One.

"People for the most part delight in conceit, take delight in conceit,

rejoice in conceit. But when the Dhamma is taught by the Tathagata

for the abolition of conceit, people wish to listen to it, lend an ear, and

try to understand it. This is the second wonderful and marvelous thing

that appears on the manifestation of the Tathagata, the Arahant, the

Perfectly Enlightened One.

"People for the most part delight in restlessness, take delight in rest-

lessness, rejoice in restlessness. But when the Dhamma of peace is

taught by the Tathagata, people wish to listen to it, lend an ear, and

try to understand it. This is the third wonderful and marvelous thing

that appears on the manifestation of the Tathagata, the Arahant, the

Perfectly Enlightened One.

"People for the most part live in ignorance, are blinded by igno-

rance, fettered by ignorance. But when the Dhamma is taught by the

Tathagata for the abolition of ignorance, people wish to listen to it,

lend an ear, and try to understand it. This is the fourth wonderful and

marvelous thing that appears on the manifestation of a Tathagata, an

Arahant, a Perfectly Enlightened One.

191

192 In the Buddha's Words

"On the manifestation of the Tathagata, the Arahant, the Perfectly

Enlightened One, these four wonderful and marvelous things appear."

(AN 4:128; II131-32)

2. GRATIFICATION, DANGER, AND ESCAPE

(1) Before My Enlightenment

"Before my enlightenment, O monks, while I was still a bodhisatta, it

occurred to me: 'What is the gratification in the world, what is the

danger in the world, what is the escape from the world?' Then it

occurred to me: 'Whatever pleasure and joy there is in the world, this

is the gratification in the world; that the world is impermanent, bound

up with suffering, and subject to change, this is the danger in the

world; the removal and abandoning of desire and lust for the world,

this is the escape from the world.'

"So long, monks, as I did not directly know, as they really are, the

gratification in the world as gratification, its danger as danger, and

the escape from the world as escape, for so long I did not claim to

have awakened to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment in this

world with its devas, Mara, and Brahma, in this population with its

ascetics and brahmins, its devas and humans.

"But when I directly knew all this, then I claimed to have awakened

to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment in this world with ... its

devas and humans. The knowledge and vision arose in me: 'Unshak-

able is the liberation of my mind; this is my last birth; there is now no

renewed existence.'"

(AN 3:101 §§1-2; I 258-59)

(2) I Set Out Seeking

"O monks, I set out seeking the gratification in the world. Whatever

gratification there is in the world, that I have found. I have clearly seen

with wisdom just how far the gratification in the world extends.

"I set out seeking the danger in the world. Whatever danger there is

in the world, that I have found. I have clearly seen with wisdom just

how far the danger in the world extends.

"I set out seeking an escape from the world. Whatever escape there

Deepening One's Perspective on the World 193

;

from the world, that I have found. I have clearly seen with wisdom

iust how far the escape from the world extends."

(AN 3:101

§3;

I 259)

(3) If There Were No Gratification

"If, monks, there were no gratification in the world, beings would not

become enamored with the world. But because there is gratification in

the world, beings become enamored with it.

"If there were no danger in the world, beings would not become dis-

enchanted with the world. But because there is danger in the world,

beings become disenchanted with it.

"If there were no escape from the world, beings could not escape

from it. But as there is an escape from the world, beings can escape

from it."

(AN 3:102; 1260)

3. PROPERLY APPRAISING OBJECTS OF ATTACHMENT

1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living at

Savatthi in Jeta's Grove, Anathapindika's Park.

2. Then, when it was morning, a number of monks dressed, and tak-

ing their bowls and outer robes, went into Savatthi for alms. Then they

thought: "It is still too early to wander for alms in Savatthi. Suppose we

went to the park of the wanderers of other sects." So they went to the

park of the wanderers of other sects and exchanged greetings with the

wanderers. When this courteous and amiable talk was finished, they

sat down at one side. The wanderers said to them:

3. "Friends, the ascetic Gotama describes the full understanding of

sensual pleasures, and we do so too; the ascetic Gotama describes the

full understanding of form, and we do so too; the ascetic Gotama

describes the full understanding of feelings, and we do so too. What

then is the distinction here, friends, what is the variance, what is the

difference between the ascetic Gotama's teaching of the Dhamma and

ours, between his instructions and ours?"

194 In the Buddha's Words

4. Then those monks neither approved nor disapproved of the wan-

derers' words. Without doing either they rose from their seats and

went away, thinking: "We shall come to understand the meaning of

these words in the Blessed One's presence."

5. When they had wandered for alms in Savatthi and had returned

from their almsround, after the meal they went to the Blessed One, and

after paying homage to him, they sat down at one side and told him

what had taken place. [The Blessed One said:]

6. "Monks, wanderers of other sects who speak thus should be ques-

tioned thus: 'But, friends, what is the gratification, what is the danger,

and what is the escape in the case of sensual pleasures? What is the

gratification, what is the danger, and what is the escape in the case of

form? What is the gratification, what is the danger, and what is the

escape in the case of feelings?' If they are questioned thus, wanderers

of other sects will fail to account for the matter, and what is more, they

will get into difficulties. Why is that? Because it is not their province.

Monks, I see no one in the world with its devas, Mara, and Brahma, in

this population with its ascetics and brahmins, its devas and humans,

who could satisfy the mind with a reply to these questions except for

the Tathagata or his disciple or one who has learned it from them.

[sensual pleasures]

7. (i) "And what, monks, is the gratification in the case of sensual pleas-

ures? Monks, there are these five cords of sensual pleasure. What are

the five? Forms cognizable by the eye that are wished for, desired,

agreeable and likeable, connected with sensual desire, and provoca-

tive of lust. Sounds cognizable by the ear.... Odors cognizable by the

nose.... Flavors cognizable by the tongue.... Tactile objects cognizable

by the body that are wished for, desired, agreeable and likeable, con-

nected with sensual desire, and provocative of lust. These are the five

cords of sensual pleasure. Now the pleasure and joy that arise depend-

ent on these five cords of sensual pleasure are the gratification in the

case of sensual pleasures.

8. (ii) "And what, monks, is the danger in the case of sensual pleas-

ures? Here, monks, on account of the craft by which a clansman makes

a living—whether checking, accounting, calculating, farming, trad-

ing, husbandry, archery, the royal service, or whatever craft it may

be—he has to face cold and heat; he is injured by contact with gadflies,

Deepening One's Perspective on the World 195

mosquitoes, wind, sun, and creeping things; he risks death by hunger

and thirst. Now this is a danger in the case of sensual pleasures, a mass

of suffering visible in this present life, having sensual pleasures as its

cause, source, and basis, the cause being simply sensual pleasures.

9. "If no property comes to the clansman while he works and strives

and makes an effort thus, he sorrows, grieves, and laments, he weeps

beating his breast and becomes distraught, crying: 'My work is in

vain, my effort is fruitless!' Now this too is a danger in the case of sen-

sual pleasures, a mass of suffering visible in this present life, having

sensual pleasures as its cause, source, and basis, the cause being sim-

ply sensual pleasures.

10. "If property comes to the clansman while he works and strives

and makes an effort thus, he experiences pain and grief in protecting

it: 'How shall neither kings nor thieves make off with my property,

nor fire burn it, nor water sweep it away, nor unloved heirs make off

with it?' And as he guards and protects his property, kings or thieves

make off with it, or fire burns it, or water sweeps it away, or unloved

heirs make off with it. And he sorrows, grieves, and laments, he

weeps beating his breast and becomes distraught, crying: T no longer

have my property!' Now this too is a danger in the case of sensual

pleasures, a mass of suffering visible in this present life, having sen-

sual pleasures as its cause, source, and basis, the cause being simply

sensual pleasures.

11. "Again, with sensual pleasures as the cause ... kings quarrel with

kings, khattiyas with khattiyas, brahmins with brahmins, household-

ers with householders; mother quarrels with son, son with mother,

father with son, son with father; brother quarrels with brother, brother

with sister, sister with brother, friend with friend. And here in their

quarrels, brawls, and disputes they attack each other with fists, clods,

sticks, or knives, whereby they incur death or deadly suffering. Now

this too is a danger in the case of sensual pleasures, a mass of suffering

visible in this present life, having sensual pleasures as its cause, source,

and basis, the cause being simply sensual pleasures.

12. "Again, with sensual pleasures as the cause ... men take swords

and shields and buckle on bows and quivers, and they charge into

battle massed in double array with arrows and spears flying and

swords flashing; and there they are wounded by arrows and spears,

and their heads are cut off by swords, whereby they incur death or

196 In the Buddha's Words

deadly suffering. Now this too is a danger in the case of sensual pleas-

ures, a mass of suffering visible in this present life, having sensual

pleasures as its cause, source, and basis, the cause being simply sensual

pleasures.

13. "Again, with sensual pleasures as the cause ... men take swords

and shields and buckle on bows and quivers, and they charge slip-

pery bastions, with arrows and spears flying and swords flashing;

and there they are wounded by arrows and spears and splashed with

boiling liquids and crushed under heavy weights, and their heads are

cut off by swords, whereby they incur death or deadly suffering. Now

this too is a danger in the case of sensual pleasures, a mass of suffering

visible in this present life, having sensual pleasures as its cause, source,

and basis, the cause being simply sensual pleasures.

14. "Again, with sensual pleasures as the cause ... men break into

houses, plunder wealth, commit burglary, ambush highways, seduce

others' wives, and when they are caught, kings have many kinds of

torture inflicted on them ... whereby they incur death or deadly suffer-

ing. Now this too is a danger in the case of sensual pleasures, a mass

of suffering visible in this present life, having sensual pleasures as its

cause, source, and basis, the cause being simply sensual pleasures.

15. "Again, with sensual pleasures as the cause ... people indulge in

misconduct of body, speech, and mind. Having done so, on the

breakup of the body, after death, they are reborn in a state of misery, in

a bad destination, in the lower world, in hell. Now this is a danger in

the case of sensual pleasures, a mass of suffering in the life to come,

having sensual pleasures as its cause, source, and basis, the cause being

simply sensual pleasures.

16. (iii) "And what, monks, is the escape in the case of sensual pleas-

ures? It is the removal of desire and lust, the abandonment of desire

and lust for sensual pleasures. This is the escape in the case of sensual

pleasures.

17. "That those ascetics and brahmins who do not understand as it

really is the gratification as gratification, the danger as danger, and the

escape as escape in the case of sensual pleasures, can either themselves

fully understand sensual pleasures or instruct others so that they can

fully understand sensual pleasures—that is impossible. That those

ascetics and brahmins who understand as it really is the gratification

as gratification, the danger as danger, and the escape as escape in the

Deepening One's Perspective on the World iv/

case of sensual pleasures, can themselves fully understand sensual

pleasures and instruct others so that they can fully understand sensual

pleasures—that is possible.

[form]

18. (i) "And what, monks, is the gratification in the case of form? Sup-

pose there were a girl of the khattiya class or the brahmin class or of

householder stock, in her fifteenth or sixteenth year, neither too tall

nor too short, neither too thin nor too fat, neither too dark nor too fair.

Is her beauty and loveliness then at its height?"—"Yes, venerable

sir."—"Now the pleasure and joy that arise in dependence on that

beauty and loveliness are the gratification in the case of form.

19. (ii) "And what, monks, is the danger in the case of form? Later on

one might see that same woman here at eighty, ninety, or a hundred

years, aged, as crooked as a roof bracket, doubled up, supported by a

walking stick, tottering, frail, her youth gone, her teeth broken, gray-

haired, scanty-haired, bald, wrinkled, with limbs all blotchy. What do

you think, monks? Has her former beauty and loveliness vanished and

the danger become evident?"—"Yes, venerable sir."—"Monks, this is

a danger in the case of form.

20. "Again, one might see that same woman afflicted, suffering, and

gravely ill, lying fouled in her own urine and excrement, lifted up by

some and set down by others. What do you think, monks? Has her for-

mer beauty and loveliness vanished and the danger become evident?"—

"Yes, venerable sir."—"Monks, this too is a danger in the case of form.

21. "Again, one might see that same woman as a corpse thrown aside

in a charnel ground, one, two, or three days dead, bloated, livid, and

oozing matter. What do you think, monks? Has her former beauty and

loveliness vanished and the danger become evident?"—"Yes, venera-

ble sir."—"Monks, this too is a danger in the case of form.

22-29. "Again, one might see that same woman as a corpse thrown

aside in a charnel ground, being devoured by crows, hawks, vultures,

dogs, jackals, or various kinds of worms ... a skeleton with flesh and

blood, held together with sinews ... a fleshless skeleton smeared with

blood, held together with sinews ... a skeleton without flesh and blood,

held together with sinews ... disconnected bones scattered in all direc-

tions—here a hand-bone, there a foot-bone, here a thigh-bone, there a

rib-bone, here a hip-bone, there a back-bone, here the skull ... bones

In the Buddha's Words

bleached white, the color of shells ... bones heaped up ... bones more

than a year old, rotted and crumbled to dust. What do you think,

monks? Has her former beauty and loveliness vanished and the dan-

ger become evident?"—"Yes, venerable sir."—"Monks, this too is a

danger in the case of form.

30. (iii) "And what, monks, is the escape in the case of form? It is the

removal of desire and lust, the abandonment of desire and lust for

form. This is the escape in the case of form.

31. "That those ascetics and brahmins who do not understand as it

really is the gratification as gratification, the danger as danger, and the

escape as escape in the case of form, can either themselves fully under-

stand form or instruct others so that they can fully understand form—

that is impossible. That those ascetics and brahmins who understand

as it really is the gratification as gratification, the danger as danger,

and the escape as escape in the case of form, can themselves fully

understand form and instruct others so that they can fully understand

form—that is possible.

[feelings]

32. (i) "And what, monks, is the gratification in the case of feelings? Here,

monks, quite secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unwhole-

some states, a monk enters upon and dwells in the first jhana, which is

accompanied by thought and examination, with rapture and happiness

born of seclusion. On such an occasion he does not choose for his own

affliction, or for another's affliction, or for the affliction of both. On that

occasion he feels only feeling that is free from affliction. The highest grat-

ification in the case of feelings is freedom from affliction, I say.

33-35. "Again, with the stilling of thought and examination, a monk

enters upon and dwells in the second jhana.... With the fading away as

well of rapture ... he enters upon and dwells in the third jhana.... With

the abandoning of pleasure and pain he enters upon and dwells in the

fourth jhana.... On such an occasion he does not choose for his own

affliction, or for another's affliction, or for the affliction of both. On

that occasion he feels only feeling that is free from affliction. The high-

est gratification in the case of feelings is freedom from affliction, I say.

36. (ii) "And what, monks, is the danger in the case of feelings? Feel-

ings are impermanent, suffering, and subject to change. This is the

danger in the case of feelings.

Deepening One's Perspective on the World 199

37. (iii) "And what, monks, is the escape in the case of feelings? It is

the removal of desire and lust, the abandonment of desire and lust for

feelings. This is the escape in the case of feelings.

38. "That those ascetics and brahmins who do not understand as it

really is the gratification as gratification, the danger as danger, and the

escape as escape in the case of feelings, can either themselves fully

understand feelings or instruct others so that they can fully understand

feelings—that is impossible. That those ascetics and brahmins who

understand as it really is the gratification as gratification, the danger as

danger, and the escape as escape in the case of feelings, can themselves

fully understand feelings and instruct others so that they can fully

understand feelings—that is possible."

That is what the Blessed One said. The monks were satisfied and

delighted in the Blessed One's words.

(MN 13: Mahadukkhakkhandha Sutta; 184-90)

4. THE PITFALLS IN SENSUAL PLEASURES

(1) Cutting Off AW Affairs

[The householder Potaliya asked the Blessed One:] "Venerable sir,

how is the cutting off of affairs

in the Noble One's discipline

achieved entirely and in all ways? It would be good, venerable sir, if

the Blessed One would teach me the Dhamma, showing me how the

cutting off of affairs in the Noble One's discipline is achieved entirely

and in all ways."

"Then listen, householder, and attend closely to what I shall say."

"Yes, venerable sir," Potaliya the householder replied. The Blessed

One said this:

15. "Householder, suppose a dog, overcome by hunger and weakness,

was waiting by a butcher's shop. Then a skilled butcher or his appren-

tice would toss the dog a well-hacked, clean-hacked skeleton of meatless

bones smeared with blood. What do you think, householder? Would

that dog get rid of his hunger and weakness by gnawing such a well-

hacked, clean-hacked skeleton of meatless bones smeared with blood?"

"No, venerable sir. Why is that? Because that was a skeleton of well-

hacked, clean-hacked meatless bones smeared with blood. Eventually

that dog would reap weariness and disappointment."

200 In the Buddha's Words

"So too, householder, a noble disciple considers thus: 'Sensual pleas-

ures have been compared to a skeleton by the Blessed One; they pro-

vide much suffering and much despair, while the danger in them is

still more.' Having seen this thus as it really is with proper wisdom, he

avoids the equanimity that is diversified, based on diversity, and devel-

ops the equanimity that is unified, based on unity,

where clinging to

the carnal things of the world utterly ceases without remainder.

16. "Householder, suppose a vulture, a heron, or a hawk seized a

piece of meat and flew away, and then other vultures, herons, and

hawks pursued it and pecked and clawed it. What do you think,

householder? If that first vulture, heron, or hawk does not quickly let

go of that piece of meat, wouldn't it thereby incur death or deadly

suffering?"

"Yes, venerable sir."

"So too, householder, a noble disciple considers thus: 'Sensual pleas-

ures have been compared to a piece of meat by the Blessed One; they

provide much suffering and much despair, while the danger in them

is still more.' Having seen this thus as it really is with proper wisdom

... clinging to the carnal things of the world utterly ceases without

remainder.

17. "Householder, suppose a man took a blazing grass torch and

went against the wind. What do you think, householder? If that man

does not quickly let go of that blazing grass torch, wouldn't that blaz-

ing grass torch burn his hand or his arm or some other part of his body,

so that he might incur death or deadly suffering because of that?"

"Yes, venerable sir."

"So too, householder, a noble disciple considers thus: 'Sensual pleas-

ures have been compared to a grass torch by the Blessed One; they pro-

vide much suffering and much despair, while the danger in them is

still more.' Having seen this thus as it really is with proper wisdom ...

clinging to the carnal things of the world utterly ceases without

remainder.

18. "Householder, suppose there were a charcoal pit deeper than a

man's height full of glowing coals without flame or smoke. Then a man

came who wanted to live and not to die, who wanted pleasure and

recoiled from pain, and two strong men seized him by both arms and

dragged him toward that charcoal pit. What do you think, house-

holder? Would that man twist his body this way and that?"

Deepening One's Perspective on the World 201

"Yes, venerable sir. Why is that? Because that man knows that if he

falls into that charcoal pit, he will incur death or deadly suffering

because of that."

"So too, householder, a noble disciple considers thus: 'Sensual pleas-

ures have been compared to a charcoal pit by the Blessed One; they

provide much suffering and much despair, while the danger in them

is still more.' Having seen this thus as it really is with proper wisdom

... clinging to the carnal things of the world utterly ceases without

remainder.

19. "Householder, suppose a man dreamed about lovely parks,

lovely groves, lovely meadows, and lovely lakes, and on waking he

saw nothing of them. So too, householder, a noble disciple considers

thus: 'Sensual pleasures have been compared to a dream by the Blessed

One; they provide much suffering and much despair, while the danger

in them is still more.' Having seen this thus as it really is with proper

wisdom ... clinging to the carnal things of the world utterly ceases

without remainder.

20. "Householder, suppose a man borrowed goods on loan—a fancy

carriage and fine jewel earrings—and preceded and surrounded by

those borrowed goods he went to the marketplace. Then people, see-

ing him, would say: 'Sirs, that is a rich man! That is how the rich enjoy

their wealth!' Then the owners, whenever they saw him, would take

back their things. What do you think, householder? Would that be

enough for that man to become dejected?"

"Yes, venerable sir. Why is that? Because the owners took back their

things."

"So too, householder, a noble disciple considers thus: 'Sensual

pleasures have been compared to borrowed goods by the Blessed One;

they provide much suffering and much despair, while the danger in

them is still more.' Having seen this thus as it really is with proper

wisdom ... clinging to carnal things of the world utterly ceases with-

out remainder.

21. "Householder, suppose a dense grove not far from some village

or town had a fruit-laden tree, none of whose fruit had fallen to the

ground. Then a man came needing fruit, seeking fruit, wandering in

search of fruit, and he entered the grove and saw the tree laden with

fruit. Thereupon he thought: 'This tree is laden with fruit but none of

its fruit has fallen to the ground. I know how to climb a tree, so let me

202 In the Buddha's Words

climb this tree, eat as much fruit as I want, and fill my bag.' And he did

so. Then a second man came needing fruit, seeking fruit, wandering in

search of fruit, and taking a sharp axe, he too entered the grove and

saw that tree laden with fruit. Thereupon he thought: This tree is laden

with fruit but none of its fruit has fallen to the ground. I do not know

how to climb a tree, so let me cut this tree down at its root, eat as much

fruit as I want, and fill my bag.' And he did so. What do you think,

householder? If that first man who had climbed the tree doesn't come

down quickly, when the tree falls, wouldn't he break his hand or foot

or some other part of his body, so that he might incur death or deadly

suffering because of that?"

"Yes, venerable sir."

"So too, householder, a noble disciple considers thus: 'Sensual

pleasures have been compared to fruits on a tree by the Blessed One;

they provide much suffering and much despair, while the danger in

them is still more.' Having seen this thus as it really is with proper

wisdom, he avoids the equanimity that is diversified, based on diver-

sity, and develops the equanimity that is unified, based on unity,

where clinging to the carnal things of the world utterly ceases with-

out remainder."

(from MN 54: Potaliya Sutta; 1364-66)

(2) The Fever of Sensual Pleasures

10. "Magandiya, formerly when I lived the household life, I enjoyed

myself, provided and endowed with the five cords of sensual pleasure:

with forms cognizable by the eye ... with sounds cognizable by the ear

... with odors cognizable by the nose ... with flavors cognizable by the

tongue ... with tactile objects cognizable by the body that are wished

for, desired, agreeable, and likeable, connected with sensual desire and

provocative of lust.

1 had three palaces, one for the rainy season, one

for the winter, and one for the summer. I lived in the rains' palace for

the four months of the rainy season, enjoying myself with musicians,

none male, and I did not go down to the lower palace.

"On a later occasion, having understood as they really are the origin,

the passing away, the gratification, the danger, and the escape in the

case of sensual pleasures, I abandoned craving for sensual pleasures,

I removed the fever of sensual pleasures, and I dwell without thirst,

Deepening One's Perspective on the World 203

vvith a mind inwardly at peace. I see other people who are not free

from lust for sensual pleasures being devoured by craving for sensual

pleasures, burning with the fever of sensual pleasures, indulging in

sensual pleasures, and I do not envy them, nor do I delight therein.

Why is that? Because there is, Magandiya, a delight apart from sen-

sual pleasures, apart from unwholesome states, which surpasses even

divine bliss.

Since I take delight in that, I do not envy what is inferior,

nor do I delight therein.

11. "Suppose, Magandiya, a householder or a householder's son was

rich, affluent, and wealthy, and being provided and endowed with the

five cords of sensual pleasure, he might enjoy himself with forms cog-

nizable by the eye ... with sounds cognizable by the ear ... with odors

cognizable by the nose ... with flavors cognizable by the tongue ...

with tactile objects cognizable by the body that are wished for, desired,

agreeable and likeable, connected with sensual desire and provocative

of lust. Having conducted himself well in body, speech, and mind, on

the breakup of the body, after death, he might be reborn in a good des-

tination, in a heavenly world in the retinue of the Tavatimsa devas;

and there, surrounded by a group of nymphs in the Nandana Grove,

he would enjoy himself provided and endowed with the five cords of

divine sensual pleasure. Suppose he saw a householder or a house-

holder's son enjoying himself, provided and endowed with the five

cords of [human] sensual pleasure. What do you think, Magandiya?

Would that young deva surrounded by the group of nymphs in the

Nandana Grove, enjoying himself provided and endowed with the five

cords of divine sensual pleasure, envy the householder or the house-

holder's son for the five cords of human sensual pleasure or would he

be enticed by human sensual pleasures?"

"No, Master Gotama. Why not? Because divine sensual pleasures

are more excellent and sublime than human sensual pleasures."

12. "So too, Magandiya, formerly when I lived the household life, I

enjoyed myself, provided and endowed with the five cords of sensual

pleasure: with forms cognizable by the eye ... with tactile objects cog-

nizable by the body that are wished for, desired, agreeable, and like-

able, connected with sensual desire and provocative of lust. On a later

occasion, having understood as they really are the gratification, the dan-

ger, and the escape in the case of sensual pleasures, I abandoned crav-

ing for sensual pleasures, I removed the fever of sensual pleasures, and

204 In the Buddha's Words

I dwell without thirst, with a mind inwardly at peace. I see other peo-

ple who are not free from lust for sensual pleasures being devoured by

craving for sensual pleasures, burning with the fever of sensual pleas-

ures, indulging in sensual pleasures, and I do not envy them nor do I

delight therein. Why is that? Because there is, Magandiya, a delight

apart from sensual pleasures, apart from unwholesome states, which

surpasses even divine bliss. Since I take delight in that, I do not envy

what is inferior, nor do I delight therein.

13. "Suppose, Magandiya, there was a leper with sores and blisters

on his limbs, being devoured by worms, scratching the scabs off the

openings of his wounds with his nails, cauterizing his body over a

burning charcoal pit. Then his friends and companions, his kinsmen

and relatives, would bring a physician to treat him. The physician

would make medicine for him, and by means of that medicine the man

would be cured of his leprosy and would become well and happy,

independent, master of himself, able to go where he likes. Then he

might see another leper with sores and blisters on his limbs, being

devoured by worms, scratching the scabs off the openings of his

wounds with his nails, cauterizing his body over a burning charcoal

pit. What do you think, Magandiya? Would that man envy that leper

for his burning charcoal pit or his use of medicine?"

"No, Master Gotama. Why is that? Because when there is sickness,

there is need for medicine, and when there is no sickness there is no

need for medicine."

14. "So too, Magandiya, formerly when I lived the household life ...

[as in §12] ... Since I take delight in that, I do not envy what is inferior,

nor do I delight therein.

15. "Suppose, Magandiya, there was a leper with sores and blisters

on his limbs, being devoured by worms, scratching the scabs off the

openings of his wounds with his nails, cauterizing his body over a

burning charcoal pit. Then his friends and companions, his kinsmen

and relatives, brought a physician to treat him. The physician would

make medicine for him, and by means of that medicine the man would

be cured of his leprosy and would become well and happy, independ-

ent, master of himself, able to go where he likes. Then two strong men

would seize him by both arms and drag him toward a burning charcoal

pit. What do you think, Magandiya? Would that man twist his body

this way and that?"

Deepening One's Perspective on the World

"Yes, Master Gotama. Why is that? Because that fire is indeed painful

to touch, hot, and scorching."

"What do you think, Magandiya? Is it only now that that fire is

painful to touch, hot, and scorching, or previously too was that fire

painful to touch, hot, and scorching?"

"Master Gotama, that fire is now painful to touch, hot, and scorch-

ing, and previously too that fire was painful to touch, hot, and scorch-

ing. For when that man was a leper with sores and blisters on his limbs,

being devoured by worms, scratching the scabs off the openings of his

wounds with his nails, his faculties were impaired; thus, though the

fire was actually painful to touch, he acquired a mistaken perception

of it as pleasant."

16. "So too, Magandiya, in the past sensual pleasures were painful to

touch, hot, and scorching; in the future sensual pleasures will be painful

to touch, hot, and scorching; and now at present sensual pleasures are

painful to touch, hot, and scorching. But these people who are not free

from lust for sensual pleasures, who are devoured by craving for sensual

pleasures, who burn with the fever of sensual pleasures, have faculties

that are impaired; thus, though sensual pleasures are actually painful to

touch, they acquire a mistaken perception of them as pleasant.

17. "Suppose, Magandiya, there was a leper with sores and blisters

on his limbs, being devoured by worms, scratching the scabs off the

openings of his wounds with his nails, cauterizing his body over a

burning charcoal pit; the more he scratches the scabs and cauterizes

his body, the fouler, more evil-smelling, and more infected the openings

of his wounds would become, yet he would find a certain measure of

satisfaction and enjoyment in scratching the openings of his wounds.

So too, Magandiya, people who are not free from lust for sensual pleas-

ures, who are devoured by craving for sensual pleasures, who burn

with the fever of sensual pleasures, still indulge in sensual pleasures;

the more they indulge in sensual pleasures, the more their craving for

sensual pleasures increases and the more they are burned by the fever

of sensual pleasures, yet they find a certain measure of satisfaction and

enjoyment in dependence on the five cords of sensual pleasure."

(from MN 75: Magandiya Sutta; 1504-8)

206 In the Buddha's Words

5. LIFE IS SHORT AND FLEETING

"Long ago, O monks, there lived a religious teacher named Araka, who

was free of sensual lust. He had many hundreds of disciples, and this

was the doctrine he taught to them:

'"Short is the life of human beings, O brahmins, limited and brief; it

is full of suffering, full of tribulation. This one should wisely under-

stand. One should do good and live a pure life; for none who is born

can escape death.

"'Just as a dew drop on the tip of a blade of grass will quickly van-

ish at sunrise and will not last long; even so, brahmins, is human life

like a dew drop. It is short, limited, and brief; it is full of suffering, full

of tribulation. This one should wisely understand. One should do good

and live a pure life; for none who is born can escape death.

"'Just as, when rain falls from the sky in thick drops, a bubble

appearing on the water will quickly vanish and will not last long; even

so, brahmins, is human life like a water bubble. It is short... for none

who is born can escape death.

"'Just as a line drawn on water with a stick will quickly vanish and

will not last long; even so, brahmins, is human life like a line drawn on

water. It is short... for none who is born can escape death.

"'Just as a mountain stream, coming from afar, swiftly flowing, car-

rying along much flotsam, will not stand still for a moment, an instant,

a second, but will rush on, swirl and flow forward; even so, brahmins,

is human life like a mountain stream. It is short ... for none who is

born can escape death.

"'Just as a strong man might form a lump of spittle at the tip of his

tongue and spit it out with ease; even so, brahmins, is human life like

a lump of spittle. It is short... for none who is born can escape death.

"'Just as a piece of meat thrown into an iron pan heated all day will

quickly burn up and will not last long; even so, brahmins, is human life

like this piece of meat. It is short... for none who is born can escape death.

"'Just as, when a cow to be slaughtered is led to the shambles, when-

ever she lifts a leg she will be closer to slaughter, closer to death; even

so, brahmins, is human life like cattle doomed to slaughter; it is short,

limited, and brief. It is full of suffering, full of tribulation. This one

should wisely understand. One should do good and live a pure life; for

none who is born can escape death.'

Deepening One's Perspective on the World 207

"But at that time, O monks, the human lifespan was 60,000 -years,

and at 500 years girls were ready for marriage. In those days people

had but six afflictions: cold, heat, hunger, thirst, excrement, and urine.

Though people lived so long and had so few afflictions, that teacher

Araka gave to his disciples such a teaching: 'Short is the life of human

beings....'

"But nowadays, O monks, one could rightly say, 'Short is the life of

human beings ...'; for today one who lives long lives for a hundred

years or a little more. And when living for a hundred years, it is just for

three hundred seasons: a hundred winters, a hundred summers, and a

hundred rains. When living for three hundred seasons, it is just for

twelve hundred months: four hundred winter months, four hundred

summer months, and four hundred months of the rains. When living

for twelve hundred months, it is just for twenty-four hundred fort-

nights: eight hundred fortnights of winter, eight hundred of summer,

and eight hundred of the rains.

"And when living for twenty-four hundred fortnights, it is just for

36,000 days: 12,000 days of winter, 12,000 of summer, and 12,000 of the

rains. And when living for 36,000 days, he eats just 72,000 meals: 24,000

meals in winter, 24,000 in summer, and 24,000 in the rains. And this

includes the taking of mother's milk and the times without food. These

are the times without food: when agitated or grieved or sick, when

observing a fast, or when not obtaining anything to eat.

"Thus, O monks, I have reckoned the life of a centenarian: the limit

of his lifespan, the number of seasons, years, months, and fortnights,

of days and nights, of his meals and foodless times.

"Whatever should be done by a compassionate teacher who, out of

compassion, seeks the welfare of his disciples, that I have done for you.

These are the roots of trees, O monks, these are empty huts. Meditate,

monks, do not be negligent, or else you will regret it later. This is our

instruction to you."

(AN 7:70; IV 136-39)

6. FOUR SUMMARIES OF THE DHAMMA

26. The Venerable Ratthapala went to King Koravya's Migacira garden

and sat down at the root of a tree to pass the day.

208 In the Buddha's Words

27. Then King Koravya addressed his gamekeeper thus: "Good

gamekeeper, tidy up the Migacira Garden so that we may go to the

pleasure garden to see a pleasing spot."—"Yes, sire," he replied. Now

while he was tidying up the Migacira Garden, the gamekeeper saw

the Venerable Ratthapala seated at the root of a tree for the day's abid-

ing. When he saw him, he went to King Koravya and told him: "Sire,

the Migacira Garden has been tidied up. The clansman Ratthapala is

there, the son of the leading clan in this same Thullakotthita, of whom

you have always spoken highly; he is seated at the root of a tree for the

day's abiding."

"Then, good gamekeeper, enough of the pleasure garden for today.

Now we shall go to pay respects to that Master Ratthapala."

28. Then, saying: "Give away all the food that has been prepared

there," King Koravya had a number of state carriages prepared, and

mounting one of them, accompanied by the other carriages, he drove

out from Thullakotthita with the full pomp of royalty to see the Ven-

erable Ratthapala. He drove thus as far as the road was passable for

carriages, and then he dismounted from his carriage and went forward

on foot with a following of the most eminent officials to where the Ven-

erable Ratthapala was. He exchanged greetings with the Venerable

Ratthapala, and when this courteous and amiable talk was finished,

he stood at one side and said: "Here is an elephant rug. Let Master

Ratthapala be seated on it."

"There is no need, great king. Sit down. I am sitting on my own mat."

King Koravya sat down on a seat made ready and said:

29. "Master Ratthapala, there are four kinds of loss. Because they

have undergone these four kinds of loss, some people here shave off

their hair and beard, put on the ochre robe, and go forth from the house-

hold life into homelessness. What are the four? They are loss through

aging, loss through sickness, loss of wealth, and loss of relatives.

30. "And what is loss through aging? Here, Master Ratthapala,

someone is old, aged, burdened with years, advanced in life, come to

the last stage. He considers thus: T am old, aged, burdened with years,

advanced in life, come to the last stage. It is no longer easy for me to

acquire new wealth or to augment wealth already acquired. Suppose

I shave off my hair and beard, put on the ochre robe, and go forth from

the household life into homelessness.' Because he has undergone that

loss through aging, he shaves off his hair and beard, puts on the ochre

Deepening One's Perspective on the World 209

robe, and goes forth from the household life into homelessness. This is

called loss through aging. But Master Ratthapala is now still young, a

black-haired young man endowed with the blessing of youth, in the

prime of life. Master Ratthapala has not undergone any loss through

aging. What has he known, seen, or heard that he has gone forth from

the household life into homelessness?

31. "And what is loss through sickness? Here, Master Ratthapala,

someone is afflicted, suffering, and gravely ill. He considers thus: T am

afflicted, suffering, and gravely ill. It is no longer easy for me to acquire

new wealth ... into homelessness.' Because he has undergone that loss

through sickness ... he goes forth from the household life into homeless-

ness. This is called loss through sickness. But Master Ratthapala now is

free from illness and affliction; he possesses a good digestion that is nei-

ther too cool nor too warm but medium. Master Ratthapala has not

undergone any loss through sickness. What has he known, seen, or

heard that he has gone forth from the household life into homelessness?

32. "And what is loss of wealth? Here, Master Ratthapala, someone

is rich, affluent, and wealthy. Gradually his wealth dwindles away. He

considers thus: 'Formerly I was rich, affluent, and wealthy. Gradually

my wealth has dwindled away. It is no longer easy for me to acquire

new wealth ... into homelessness.' Because he has undergone that loss

of wealth ... he goes forth from the household life into homelessness.

This is called loss of wealth. But Master Ratthapala is the son of the

leading clan in this same Thullakotthita. Master Ratthapala has not

undergone any loss of wealth. What has he known, seen, or heard that

he has gone forth from the household life into homelessness?

33. "And what is loss of relatives? Here, Master Ratthapala, someone

has many friends and companions, kinsmen and relatives. Gradually

those relatives of his dwindle away. He considers thus: 'Formerly I had

many friends and companions, kinsmen and relatives. Gradually those

relatives of mine have dwindled away. It is no longer easy for me to

acquire new wealth ... into homelessness.' Because he has undergone

that loss of relatives ... he goes forth from the household life into home-

lessness. This is called loss of relatives. But Master Ratthapala has

many friends and companions, kinsmen and relatives, in this same

Thullakotthita. Master Ratthapala has not undergone any loss of rela-

tives. What has he known, seen, or heard that he has gone forth from

the household life into homelessness?

210 In the Buddha's Words

34. "Master Ratthapala, these are the four kinds of loss. Because they

have undergone these four kinds of loss, some people here shave off

their hair and beard, put on the ochre robe, and go forth from the

household life into homelessness. Master Ratthapala has not under-

gone any of these. What has he known, seen, or heard that he has gone

forth from the household life into homelessness?"

35. "Great king, there are four summaries of the Dhamma that have

been taught by the Blessed One who knows and sees, the Arahant, the

Perfectly Enlightened One. Knowing and seeing and hearing them, I

went forth from the household life into homelessness. What are the four?

36. (1) "'[Life in] any world is unstable, it is swept away': this is the

first summary of the Dhamma taught by the Blessed One who knows

and sees, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One. Knowing and

seeing and hearing this, I went forth from the household life into

homelessness.

(2) "'[Life in] any world has no shelter and no protector': this is the

second summary of the Dhamma taught by the Blessed One who

knows and sees....

(3) "'[Life in] any world has nothing of its own; one has to leave all

and pass on': this is the third summary of the Dhamma taught by the

Blessed One who knows and sees....

(4) "'[Life in] any world is incomplete, insatiate, the slave of craving':

this is the fourth summary of the Dhamma taught by the Blessed One

who knows and sees....

37. "Great king, these are the four summaries of the Dhamma that

have been taught by the Blessed One who knows and sees, the Ara-

hant, the Perfectly Enlightened One. Knowing and seeing and hearing

them, I went forth from the household life into homelessness."

38. "Master Ratthapala said: '[Life in] any world is unstable, it is

swept away.' How should the meaning of that statement be under-

stood?"

"What do you think, great king? When you were twenty or twenty-

five years old, were you an expert rider of elephants, an expert horse-

man, an expert charioteer, an expert archer, an expert swordsman,

strong in thighs and arms, sturdy, capable in battle?"

"I certainly was, Master Ratthapala. Sometimes I wonder if I had

supernormal power then. I do not see anyone who could equal me in

strength."

Deepening One's Perspective on the World 211

"What do you think, great king? Are you now as strong in thighs

and arms, as sturdy and as capable in battle?"

"No, Master Ratthapala. Now I am old, aged, burdened with

years, advanced in life, come to the last stage; my years have turned

eighty. Sometimes I mean to put my foot here and I put my foot some-

where else."

"Great king, it was on account of this that the Blessed One who

knows and sees, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One, said:

'[Life in] any world is unstable, it is swept away'; and when I knew,

saw, and heard this, I went forth from the household life into home-

lessness."

"It is wonderful, Master Ratthapala, it is marvelous how well that

has been expressed by the Blessed One who knows and sees, the Ara-

hant, the Perfectly Enlightened One: '[Life in] any world is unstable, it

is swept away.' It is indeed so!

39. "Master Ratthapala, there exist in this court elephant troops and

cavalry and chariot troops and infantry, which will serve to subdue

any threats to us. Now Master Ratthapala said: '[Life in] any world has

no shelter and no protector.' How should the meaning of that state-

ment be understood?"

"What do you think, great king? Do you have any chronic ailment?"

"I have a chronic wind ailment, Master Ratthapala. Sometimes my

friends and companions, kinsmen and relatives, stand around me,

thinking: 'Now King Koravya is about to die, now King Koravya is

about to die!'"

"What do you think, great king? Can you command your friends

and companions, your kinsmen and relatives: 'Come, my good friends

and companions, my kinsmen and relatives. All of you present share

this painful feeling so that I may feel less pain'? Or do you have to feel

that pain yourself alone?"

"I cannot command my friends and companions, my kinsmen and

relatives thus, Master Ratthapala. I have to feel that pain alone."

"Great king, it was on account of this that the Blessed One who

knows and sees, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One, said: '[Life

in] any world has no shelter and no protector'; and when I knew, saw,

and heard this, I went forth from the household life into homelessness."

"It is wonderful, Master Ratthapala, it is marvelous how well that has

been expressed by the Blessed One who knows and sees, the Arahant,

212 In the Buddha's Words

the Perfectly Enlightened One: '[Life in] any world has no shelter and

no protector.' It is indeed so!

40. "Master Ratthapala, there exist in this court abundant gold coins

and bullion stored away in vaults and lofts. Now Master Ratthapala

said: '[Life in] any world has nothing of its own; one has to leave all

and pass on.' How should the meaning of that statement be under-

stood?"

"What do you think, great king? You now enjoy yourself provided

and endowed with the five cords of sensual pleasure, but can you be

certain that in the life to come you will likewise enjoy yourself pro-

vided and endowed with these same five cords of sensual pleasure? Or

will others take over this property, while you will have to pass on

according to your actions?"

"I cannot be certain of what will happen in the life to come, Master

Ratthapala. On the contrary, others will take over this property while

I shall have to pass on according to my actions."

"Great king, it was on account of this that the Blessed One who

knows and sees, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One, said:

'[Life in] any world has nothing of its own; one has to leave all and

pass on'; and when I knew, saw, and heard this, I went forth from the

household life into homelessness."

"It is wonderful, Master Ratthapala, it is marvelous how well that

has been expressed by the Blessed One who knows and sees, the Ara-

hant, the Perfectly Enlightened One: '[Life in] any world has nothing

of its own; one has to leave all and pass on.' It is indeed so!

41. "Now

Master Ratthapala said: '[Life in] any world is incomplete,

insatiate, the slave of craving.' How should the meaning of that state-

ment be understood?"

"What do you think, great king? Do you reign over the rich Kuru

country?"

"Yes, Master Ratthapala, I do."

"What do you think, great king? Suppose a trustworthy and reliable

man came to you from the east and said: 'Please know, great king, that

I have come from the east, and there I saw a large country, powerful

and rich, very populous and crowded with people. There are plenty of

elephant troops there, plenty of cavalry, chariot troops, and infantry;

there is plenty of ivory there, and plenty of gold coins and bullion both

unworked and worked, and plenty of women for wives. With your

Deepening One's Perspective on the World

present forces you can conquer it. Conquer it then, great king.' What

would you do?"

"We would conquer it and reign over it, Master Ratthapala."

"What do you think, great king? Suppose a trustworthy and reliable

man came to you from the west... from the north ... from the south ...

from across the sea and said: 'Please know, great king, that I have come

from across the sea, and there I saw a large country, powerful and

rich.... Conquer it then, great king.' What would you do?"

"We would conquer it too and reign over it, Master Ratthapala."

"Great king, it was on account of this that the Blessed One who

knows and sees, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One, said:

'[Life in] any world is incomplete, insatiate, the slave of craving'; and

when I knew, saw, and heard this, I went forth from the household life

into homelessness."

"It is wonderful, Master Ratthapala, it is marvelous how well that

has been expressed by the Blessed One who knows and sees, the Ara-

hant, the Perfectly Enlightened One: '[Life in] any world is incomplete,

insatiate, the slave of craving.' It is indeed so!"

(from MN 82: Ratthapala Sutta; II65-82)

7. THE DANGER IN VIEWS

(1) A Miscellany on Wrong View

"Monks, I do not see even one other thing on account of which

unarisen unwholesome qualities of mind arise and arisen unwhole-

some qualities of mind increase and expand so much as on account of

wrong view.

For one of wrong view, unarisen unwholesome quali-

ties of mind arise and arisen unwholesome qualities of mind increase

and expand.

"Monks, I do not see even one other thing on account of which

unarisen wholesome qualities of mind do not arise and arisen whole-

some qualities of mind diminish so much as on account of wrong view.

For one of wrong view, unarisen wholesome qualities of mind do not

arise and arisen wholesome qualities of mind diminish.

"Monks, I do not see even one other thing on account of which, with

the breakup of the body, after death, beings are reborn in a state of mis-

ery, in a bad destination, in the lower world, in hell, so much as on

214 In the Buddha's Words

account of wrong view. Possessing wrong view, with the breakup of

the body, after death, beings are reborn in a state of misery, in a bad

destination, in the lower world, in hell.

"Monks, for a person of wrong view, whatever bodily, verbal, or

mental conduct he undertakes in accordance with that view, and what-

ever volition, aspiration, wish, and volitional formations he engenders

in accordance with that view, all lead to what is undesirable, un-

wanted, and disagreeable, to harm and suffering. For what reason?

Because the view is bad. Just as, when a seed of neem, bitter cucumber,

or bitter gourd is planted in moist soil, it transforms any nutriment it

obtains from the soil and the water into a fruit with a bitter, harsh, and

disagreeable taste, even so is it for a person of wrong view. For what

reason? Because the view is bad."

(ANl:xvii, 1, 3, 7,9; 130-32)

(2) The Blind Men and the Elephant

On one occasion the Blessed One was living at Savatthi in Jeta's Grove,

Anathapindika's Park. Now at that time a number of ascetics and

brahmins, wanderers of other sects, were living around Savatthi. They

held various views, beliefs, and opinions, and propagated various

views. And they were quarrelsome, disputatious, wrangling, wound-

ing each other with verbal darts, saying, "The Dhamma is like this, the

Dhamma is not like that! The Dhamma is not like this, the Dhamma

is like that!"

Then a number of monks entered Savatthi on almsround. Having

returned, after their meal they approached the Blessed One, paid hom-

age to him, sat down to one side, and told him what they had seen.

[The Blessed One said:]

"Monks, wanderers of other sects are blind and sightless. They do

not know what is beneficial and harmful. They do not know what is

the Dhamma and what is not the Dhamma, and thus they are so quar-

relsome and disputatious.

"Formerly, monks, there was a king in Savatthi who addressed a

man and asked him to round up all the persons in the city who were

blind from birth. When the man had done so, the king asked the man

to show the blind men an elephant. To some of the blind men he pre-

sented the head of the elephant, to some the ear, to others a tusk, the

Deepening One's Perspective on the World 215

trunk, the body, a foot, the hindquarters, the tail, or the tuft at the end

of the tail. And to each one he said, 'This is an elephant.'

"When he reported to the king what he had done, the king went to

the blind men and asked them, 'Tell me, blind men, what is an ele-

phant like?'

"Those who had been shown the head of the elephant replied, 'An

elephant, your majesty, is just like a water jar.' Those who had been

shown the ear replied, 'An elephant is just like a winnowing basket.'

Those who had been shown the tusk replied, 'An elephant is just like a

plowshare.' Those who had been shown the trunk replied, 'An elephant

is just like a plow pole.' Those who had been shown the body replied,

'An elephant is just like a storeroom.' And each of the others likewise

described the elephant in terms of the part they had been shown.

"Then, saying, 'An elephant is like this, an elephant is not like that!

An elephant is not like this, an elephant is like that!' they fought each

other with their fists. And the king was delighted. Even so, monks, are

the wanderers of other sects blind and sightless, and thus they become

quarrelsome, disputatious, and wrangling, wounding each other with

verbal darts."

(Ud 6:4; 67-69)

(3) Held by Two Kinds of Views

"Monks, held by two kinds of views, some devas and human beings

hold back and some overreach; only those with vision see.

"And how, monks, do some hold back? Devas and human beings

delight in existence, are delighted with existence, rejoice in existence.

When the Dhamma is taught to them for the cessation of existence,

their minds do not enter into it, acquire confidence in it, settle upon it,

or resolve upon it. Thus, monks, do some hold back.

"And how, monks, do some overreach? Now some are troubled,

ashamed, and disgusted by this very same existence and they rejoice

in nonexistence, saying, 'In as much as this self, good sirs, is annihi-

lated and destroyed with the breakup of the body and does not exist

after death, this is peaceful, this is excellent, this is just so!' Thus,

monks, do some overreach.

"And how, monks do those with vision see? Here, a monk sees what

has come to be as having come to be. Having seen it thus, he practices

216 In the Buddha's Words

the course for disenchantment, for dispassion, for the cessation of what

has come to be. Thus, monks, do those with vision see."

(It 49; 43-44)

8. FROM THE DIVINE REALMS TO THE INFERNAL

"Monks, there are these four kinds of persons found existing in the

world. What four?

"Here, monks, some person dwells pervading one quarter with a

mind imbued with loving-kindness, likewise the second quarter, the

third, and the fourth. Thus above, below, across, and everywhere, and

to all as to himself, he dwells pervading the entire world with a mind

imbued with loving-kindness, vast, exalted, measureless, without hos-

tility, without ill will. He relishes it, takes a liking to it, and is thrilled

by it. If he is firm in it, resolves upon it, often dwells in it, and has not

lost it when he dies, he is reborn in companionship with the devas of

Brahma's company. The lifespan of those devas is an eon. The

worldling remains there all his life, and when he has completed the

entire lifespan of those devas, he goes to hell, to the animal realm, and

to the domain of spirits. But the Blessed One's disciple remains there

all his life, and when he has completed the entire lifespan of those

devas, he attains final Nibbana in that very same state of existence.

This is the difference, the disparity, the distinction between the

instructed noble disciple and the uninstructed worldling, that is, with

regard to destination and rebirth.

"Here, monks, some person dwells pervading one quarter with a

mind imbued with compassion, likewise the second quarter, the third,

and the fourth. Thus above, below, across, and everywhere, and to all

as to himself, he dwells pervading the entire world with a mind

imbued with compassion, vast, exalted, measureless, without hostility,

without ill will. He relishes it, takes a liking to it, and is thrilled by it.

If he is firm in it, resolves upon it, often dwells in it, and has not lost it

when he dies, he is reborn in companionship with the devas of stream-

ing radiance. The lifespan of those devas is two eons. The worldling

remains there all his life, and when he has completed the entire life-

span of those devas, he goes to hell, to the animal realm, and to the

domain of spirits. But the Blessed One's disciple remains there all his

Deepening One's Perspective on the World 217

life, and when he has completed the entire lifespan of those devas, he

attains final Nibbana in that very same state of existence. This is the dif-

ference, the disparity, the distinction between the instructed noble dis-

ciple and the uninstructed worldling, that is, with regard to destination

and rebirth.

"Here, monks, some person dwells pervading one quarter with a

mind imbued with altruistic joy, likewise the second quarter, the third,

and the fourth. Thus above, below, across, and everywhere, and to all

as to himself, he dwells pervading the entire world with a mind

imbued with altruistic joy, vast, exalted, measureless, without hostility,

without ill will. He relishes it, takes a liking to it, and is thrilled by it.

If he is firm in it, resolves upon it, often dwells in it, and has not lost it

when he dies, he is reborn in companionship with the devas of reful-

gent glory. The lifespan of those devas is four eons. The worldling

remains there all his life, and when he has completed the entire life-

span of those devas, he goes to hell, to the animal realm, and to the

domain of spirits. But the Blessed One's disciple remains there all his

life, and when he has completed the entire lifespan of those devas, he

attains final Nibbana in that very same state of existence. This is the dif-

ference, the disparity, the distinction between the instructed noble dis-

ciple and the uninstructed worldling, that is, with regard to destination

and rebirth.

"Here, monks, some person dwells pervading one quarter with a

mind imbued with equanimity, likewise the second quarter, the third,

and the fourth. Thus above, below, across, and everywhere, and to all

as to himself, he dwells pervading the entire world with a mind imbued

with equanimity, vast, exalted, measureless, without hostility, without

ill will. He relishes it, takes a liking to it, and is thrilled by it. If he is firm

in it, resolves upon it, often dwells in it, and has not lost it when he

dies, he is reborn in companionship with the devas of great fruit. The

lifespan of those devas is five hundred eons. The worldling remains

there all his life, and when he has completed the entire life-span of those

devas, he goes to hell, to the animal realm, and to the domain of spir-

its. But the Blessed One's disciple remains there all his life, and when he

has completed the entire lifespan of those devas, he attains final

Nibbana in that very same state of existence. This is the difference, the

disparity, the distinction between the instructed noble disciple and the

uninstructed worldling, that is, with regard to destination and rebirth.

218 In the Buddha's Words

"These, monks, are the four kinds of persons found existing in the

world."

(AN 4:125; II128-29)

9. THE PERILS OF SAMSARA

(1) The Stream of Tears

"Monks, this samsara is without discoverable beginning. A first point

is not discerned of beings roaming and wandering on hindered by

ignorance and fettered by craving. What do you think, monks, which

is more: the stream of tears that you have shed as you roamed and

wandered through this long course, weeping and wailing because of

being united with the disagreeable and separated from the agreeable—

this or the water in the four great oceans?"

"As we understand the Dhamma taught by the Blessed One, vener-

able sir, the stream of tears that we have shed as we roamed and wan-

dered through this long course, weeping and wailing because of being

united with the disagreeable and separated from the agreeable—this

alone is more than the water in the four great oceans."

"Good, good, monks! It is good that you understand the Dhamma

taught by me in such a way. The stream of tears that you have shed as

you roamed and wandered through this long course, weeping and

wailing because of being united with the disagreeable and separated

from the agreeable—this alone is more than the water in the four great

oceans. For a long time, monks, you have experienced the death of a

mother; as you have experienced this, weeping and wailing because of

being united with the disagreeable and separated from the agreeable,

the stream of tears that you have shed is more than the water in the

four great oceans.

"For a long time, monks, you have experienced the death of a

father ... the death of a brother ... the death of a sister ... the death of

a son ... the death of a daughter ... the loss of relatives ... the loss of

wealth ... loss through illness; as you have experienced this, weeping

and wailing because of being united with the disagreeable and sep-

arated from the agreeable, the stream of tears that you have shed is

more than the water in the four great oceans. For what reason?

Because, monks, this samsara is without discoverable beginning.... It

Deepening One's Perspective on the World 219

is enough to experience revulsion toward all formations, enough to

become dispassionate toward them, enough to be liberated from them."

(SN 15:3; II179-80)

(2) The Stream of Blood

While the Blessed One was dwelling at Rajagaha in the Bamboo Grove,

thirty monks from Pava approached him—all forest dwellers, alms-

food eaters, rag-robe wearers, three-robe users, yet all still with fet-

ters." Having approached, they paid homage to the Blessed One and

sat down to one side. Then it occurred to the Blessed One: "These thirty

monks from Pava are all forest dwellers, almsfood eaters, rag-robe

wearers, three-robe users, yet all are still with fetters. Let me teach them

the Dhamma in such a way that while they are sitting in these very

seats their minds will be liberated from the taints by nonclinging."

Then the Blessed One addressed those monks thus: "Monks!"

"Venerable sir!" those monks replied. The Blessed One said this:

"Monks, this samsara is without discoverable beginning. A first

point is not discerned of beings roaming and wandering on, hindered

by ignorance and fettered by craving. What do you think, monks,

which is more: the stream of blood that you have shed when you were

beheaded as you roamed and wandered through this long course—

this or the water in the four great oceans?"

"As we understand the Dhamma taught by the Blessed One, vener-

able sir, the stream of blood that we have shed when we were

beheaded as we roamed and wandered through this long course—this

alone is more than the water in the four great oceans."

"Good, good, monks! It is good that you understand the Dhamma

taught by me in such a way. The stream of blood that you have shed as

you roamed and wandered through this long course—this alone is more

than the water in the four great oceans. For a long time, monks, you

have been cows, and when as cows you were beheaded, the stream of

blood that you shed is greater than the waters in the four great oceans.

For a long time you have been buffalo, sheep, goats, deer, chickens, and

pigs.... For a long time you have been arrested as burglars, highway-

men, and adulterers, and when you were beheaded, the stream of blood

that you shed is greater than the water in the four great oceans. For

what reason? Because, monks, this samsara is without discoverable

220 In the Buddha's Words

beginning. A first point is not discerned of beings roaming and wander-

ing on, hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving. For such a long

time, monks, you have experienced suffering, anguish, and disaster,

and swelled the cemetery. It is enough to become disenchanted with

all formations, enough to become dispassionate toward them, enough

to be liberated from them."

This is what the Blessed One said. Elated, those monks delighted in

the Blessed One's statement. And while this exposition was being spo-

ken, the minds of the thirty monks from Pava were liberated from the

taints by nonclinging.

(SN 15:13; II187-89)

VII. The Path to Liberation

;::

;

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, we come to the unique distinguishing feature of the

Buddha's teaching, its "supramundane" or "world-transcending"

(lokuttara) path to liberation. This path builds upon the transformed

understanding and deepened perspective on the nature of the world

that arise from our recognition of the perils in sensual pleasures, the

inevitability of death, and the vicious nature of samsara, themes that

we surveyed in the previous chapter. It aims to lead the practitioner to

the state of liberation that lies beyond all realms of conditioned exis-

tence, to the same sorrowless and stainless bliss of Nibbana that the

Buddha himself attained on the night of his enlightenment.

This chapter presents texts that offer a broad overview of the

Buddha's world-transcending path; the following two chapters will

bring together texts that focus more finely on the training of the mind

and the cultivation of wisdom, the two major branches of the world-

transcending path. I begin, however, with several suttas that are

intended to clarify the purpose of this path, illuminating it from differ-

ent angles. Text VII,1(D, The Shorter Discourse to Maluhkyaputta (MN

63), shows that the Buddhist path is not designed to provide theoreti-

cal answers to philosophical questions. In this sutta the monk

Maluhkyaputta approaches the Buddha and demands answers to ten

speculative questions, threatening to leave the Sahgha if this demand

is not satisfied. Scholars have debated whether the Buddha refused to

answer such questions because they are in principle unanswerable or

simply because they are irrelevant to a practical resolution of the prob-

lem of suffering. Two collections of suttas in the Samyutta Nikaya—SN

33:1-10 and SN 44:7-8—make it clear that the Buddha's "silence" had

a deeper basis than mere pragmatic concerns. These suttas show that

all such questions are based on an underlying assumption that exis-

tence is to be interpreted in terms of a self and a world in which the self

is situated. Since these premises are invalid, no answer framed in terms

of these premises can be valid, and thus the Buddha must reject the

very questions themselves.

223

224 In the Buddha's Words

However, while the Buddha had philosophical grounds for refusing

to answer these questions, he also rejected them because he consid-

ered the obsession with their solutions to be irrelevant to the quest for

release from suffering. This reason is the evident point of the discourse

to Malurikyaputta, with its well-known simile of the man shot by the

poisoned arrow. Whether any of these views is true or not, the Buddha

says, "there is birth, there is aging, there is death, there are sorrow,

lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair, the destruction of which I

prescribe here and now." Against the picture of the samsaric back-

ground sketched at the end of the previous chapter, this statement now

takes on an expanded meaning: the "destruction of birth, aging, and

death" is not merely the end of suffering in a single lifetime, but the

end of the immeasurable suffering of repeated birth, aging, and death

that we have undergone in the countless eons of samsara.

Text VII,1(2), The Greater Discourse on the Simile of the Heartwood

(MN 29), clarifies from a different angle the Buddha's purpose in

expounding his world-transcending Dhamma. The sutta is about a

"clansman" who has gone forth from the household life into home-

lessness intent on reaching the end of suffering. Though earnest in pur-

pose at the time of his ordination, once he attains some success,

whether a lower achievement like gain and honor or a superior one

like concentration and insight, he becomes complacent and neglects

his original purpose in entering the Buddha's path. The Buddha

declares that none of these stations along the way—not moral disci-

pline, concentration, or even knowledge and vision—is the final goal

of the spiritual life. The goal, its heartwood or essential purpose, is

"unshakable liberation of the mind," and he urges those who have

entered the path not to be satisfied with anything less.

Text VII,1(3) is a selection of suttas from "The Connected Discourses

on the Path" (Maggasamyutta). These suttas state that the purpose of

practicing the spiritual life under the Buddha is "the fading away of

lust, ... final Nibbana without clinging," the Noble Eightfold Path

being the way to attain each of these aims.

The Noble Eightfold Path is the classical formulation of the way to

liberation, as is already clear from the Buddha's first sermon, in which

he calls the Eightfold Path the way to the cessation of suffering. Text

VII,2 gives formal definitions of the individual path factors but does

not show concretely how their practice is to be integrated into the life

The Path to Liberation 225

of a disciple. The detailed application will be filled out later in this

chapter and in chapters VIII and IX.

Text VII,3 throws a different spotlight on the path than we are accus-

tomed to hear in standard Buddhist rhetoric. While we are often told

that the practice of the Buddhist path depends entirely on personal

effort, this sutta emphasizes the importance of spiritual friendship. The

Buddha declares that spiritual friendship is not merely "half the spir-

itual life" but the whole of it, for the endeavor to attain spiritual per-

fection is not a purely solitary enterprise but occurs in dependence on

close personal ties. Spiritual friendship gives the practice of the

Dhamma an inescapably human dimension and welds the body of

Buddhist practitioners into a community united both vertically by the

relationship of teacher to students and horizontally by friendships

among peers treading a shared path.

Contrary to a common assumption, the eight path factors are not

steps to be followed in sequence, one after another. They are more

appropriately described as components than as steps. Optimally, all

eight factors should be present simultaneously, each making its own

distinctive contribution, like eight interwoven strands of a cable that

give the cable maximum strength. However, until that stage is reached,

it is inevitable that the factors of the path exhibit some degree of

sequence in their development. The eight factors are commonly distrib-

uted into three groups as follows:

1. the moral discipline group (silakkhandhu), made up of right speech,

right action, and right livelihood;

2. the concentration group (samadhikkhandha), made up of right

effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration;

3. the wisdom group (pannakkhandha), made up of right view and

right intention.

Within the Nikayas, however, this correlation occurs only once (at MN

44; I 301), where it is ascribed to the nun Dhammadinna, not to the

Buddha himself. It might be said that the two wisdom factors are

placed at the beginning because a preliminary right view and right

intention are required at the outset of the path, right view providing

the conceptual understanding of Buddhist principles that guides the

development of the other path factors, right intention the proper moti-

vation and direction for the development of the path.

226 In the Buddha's Words

In the Nikayas, the Buddha often expounds the practice of the path

as a gradual training (anupubbasikkha) that unfolds in stages from the

first step to the final goal. This gradual training is a finer subdivision

of the threefold division of the path into moral discipline, concentra-

tion, and wisdom. Invariably in the suttas the exposition of the grad-

ual training begins with the going forth into homelessness and the

adoption of the lifestyle of a bhikkhu, a Buddhist monk. This immedi-

ately calls attention to the importance of the monastic life in the

Buddha's pragmatic vision. In principle the entire practice of the

Noble Eightfold Path is open to people from any mode of life, monas-

tic or lay, and the Buddha confirms that many among his lay follow-

ers were accomplished in the Dhamma and had attained the first three

of the four stages of awakening, up to nonreturning {anagami; Thera-

vada commentators say that lay followers can also attain the fourth

stage, arahantship, but they do so either on the verge of death or after

attainment immediately seek the going forth). The fact remains, how-

ever, that the household life inevitably fosters a multitude of mun-

dane concerns and personal attachments that impede the single-

hearted quest for liberation. Thus when the Buddha set out on his

own noble quest he did so by going into homelessness, and after his

enlightenment, as a practical way to help others, he established the

Sahgha, the order of monks and nuns, for those who want to devote

themselves fully to the Dhamma unhindered by the cares of house-

hold life.

The gradual training occurs in two versions: a longer version in the

Digha Nikaya and a middle-length version in the Majjhima Nikaya.

The principal differences are: (1) the longer version has a more detailed

treatment of the observances that pertain to monastic etiquette and

ascetic self-restraint; (2) the longer version includes eight types of

higher knowledge while the middle-length version has three types.

However, as these three types are the ones mentioned in the Buddha's

account of his own enlightenment (see Text 11,3(2)), they are by far the

most important. The main paradigm for the longer version of the grad-

ual training is found at DN 2; the middle-length version is at MN 27

and MN 51, with variants at MN 38, MN 39, MN 53, MN 107, and MN

125. Here, Text VH,4 includes the whole of MN 27, which embeds the

training in the simile of the elephant's footprint that gives the sutta its

name. Text VII,5, an excerpt from MN 39, repeats the higher stages of

The Path to Liberation 227

the training as described in MN 27, but includes the impressive simi-

les not included in the latter version.

The sequence opens with the appearance of a Tathagata in the world

and his exposition of the Dhamma. Having heard this, the disciple

acquires faith and follows the Teacher into homelessness. He then

undertakes the rules of discipline that promote the purification of con-

duct and the right livelihood of an ascetic. The next three steps—con-

tentment, restraint of the sense faculties, and mindfulness and clear

comprehension—internalize the process of purification and thereby

bridge the transition from moral discipline to concentration.

The section on the abandonment of the five hindrances deals with

the preliminary training in concentration. The five hindrances—sen-

sual desire, ill will, dullness and drowsiness, restlessness and remorse,

and doubt—are the principal obstacles to meditative development, and

thus they must be removed for the mind to become collected and uni-

fied. The stock passage on the gradual training treats the overcoming

of the hindrances only schematically, but other texts in the Nikayas

provide more practical instructions, while the Pali commentaries offer

even more details. The similes in the version of MN 39—see Text

VII,5—illustrate the joyful sense of freedom that one wins by over-

coming the hindrances.

The next stage in the sequence describes the attainment of the jhanas,

profound states of concentration in which the mind becomes fully

absorbed in its object. The Buddha enumerates four jhanas, named sim-

ply after their numerical position in the series, each more refined and

elevated than its predecessor. The jhanas are always described by the

same formulas, which in several suttas are augmented by similes of

great beauty; again, see Text VII,5. Although wisdom rather than con-

centration is the critical factor in the attainment of enlightenment, the

Buddha invariably includes the jhanas in the gradual training for at least

two reasons: first, because they contribute to the intrinsic perfection of

the path; and second, because the deep concentration they induce serves

as a basis for the arising of insight. The Buddha calls the jhanas the

"footsteps of the Tathagata" (MN 27.19-22) and shows them to be pre-

cursors of the bliss of Nibbana that lies at the end of the training.

From the fourth jhana three alternative lines of further development

become possible. In a number of texts outside the stock passage on

the gradual training the Buddha mentions four meditative states that

228 In the Buddha's Words

continue the mental unification established by the jhanas. These states,

described as "the liberations that are peaceful and formless," are fur-

ther refinements of concentration. Distinguished from the jhanas by

their transcendence of the subtle mental image that serves as the object

in the jhanas, they are named the base of the infinity of space, the base

of the infinity of consciousness, the base of nothingness, and the base

of neither-perception-nor-nonperception.

A second line of development is the acquisition of supernormal

knowledge. The Buddha frequently refers to a set of six types, which

come to be called the six kinds of direct knowledge (chalabhinna). The

last of these, the knowledge of the destruction of the taints, is "supra-

mundane" or world-transcending and thus marks the culmination of

the third line of development. But the other five are all mundane,

products of the extraordinarily powerful mental concentration

achieved in the fourth jhana: the supernormal powers, the divine ear,

the ability to read the minds of others, the recollection of past lives,

and the knowledge of the passing away and rebirth of beings (see Text

VIII,4).

The jhanas and the formless attainments by themselves do not issue

in enlightenment and liberation. Though lofty and peaceful, they can

only silence the defilements that sustain the round of rebirths but can-

not eradicate them. To uproot the defilements at the most fundamen-

tal level, and thereby arrive at enlightenment and liberation, the

meditative process must be directed to a third line of development.

This is the contemplation of "things as they really are," which results

in increasingly deeper insights into the nature of existence and culmi-

nates in the final goal, the attainment of arahantship.

This line of development is the one the Buddha pursues in the pas-

sage on the gradual training. He prefaces it with descriptions of two of

the direct knowledges, the recollection of past lives and the knowledge

of the passing away and rebirth of beings. The three together figured

prominently in the Buddha's own enlightenment—as we saw in Text

11,3(2)—and are collectively called the three true knowledges (tevijja).

Although the first two are not essential to the realization of ara-

hantship, the Buddha probably includes them here because they reveal

the truly vast and profound dimensions of suffering in samsara,

thereby preparing the mind for the penetration of the Four Noble

Truths by which that suffering is diagnosed and surmounted.

The Path to Liberation 229

The passage on the gradual training does not explicitly show the

process of contemplation by which the meditator develops insight.

The whole process is only implied by the mention of its final fruit,

called the knowledge of the destruction of the taints (asavakkhayanana).

The asavas or taints are a classification of defilements considered in

their role of sustaining the forward movement of the process of birth

and death. The commentaries derive the word from a root su meaning

"to flow." Scholars differ as to whether the flow implied by the prefix

a is inward or outward; hence some have rendered it as "influxes" or

"influences," others as "outflows" or "effluents." A stock passage in the

suttas indicates the term's real significance independently of etymol-

ogy when it describes the asavas as states "that defile, bring renewal of

existence, give trouble, ripen in suffering, and lead to future birth,

aging, and death" (MN 36.47; 1250). Thus other translators, bypassing

the literal meaning, have rendered it "cankers," "corruptions," or

"taints." The three taints mentioned in the Nikayas are respectively

synonyms for craving for sensual pleasures, craving for existence, and

ignorance. When the disciple's mind is liberated from the taints by the

completion of the path of arahantship, he reviews his newly won free-

dom and roars his lion's roar: "Birth is destroyed, the spiritual life has

been lived, what had to be done has been done; there is no more com-

ing back to any state of being."

VII. THE PATH TO LIBERATION

1. WHY DOES ONE ENTER THE PATH?

(1) The Arrow of Birth, Aging, and Death

1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living at

Savatthi in Jeta's Grove, Anathapindika's Park.

2. Then, while the Venerable Maluhkyaputta was alone in medita-

tion, the following thought arose in his mind:

"These speculative views have been left undeclared by the Blessed

One, set aside and rejected by him, namely: 'the world is eternal' and

'the world is not eternal'; 'the world is finite' and 'the world is infi-

nite'; 'the soul is the same as the body' and 'the soul is one thing and

the body another'; and 'after death a Tathagata exists' and 'after

death a Tathagata does not exist' and 'after death a Tathagata both

exists and does not exist' and 'after death a Tathagata neither exists

nor does not exist.'

The Blessed One does not declare these to me,

and I do not approve of and accept this fact, so I shall go to the

Blessed One and ask him the meaning of this. If he declares to me

either 'the world is eternal' ... or 'after death a Tathagata neither

exists nor does not exist,' then I will lead the spiritual life under him;

if he does not declare these to me, then I will abandon the training

and return to the lower life."

3. Then, when it was evening, the Venerable Maluhkyaputta rose

from meditation and went to the Blessed One. After paying homage to

him, he sat down at one side and told him:

"Here, venerable sir, while I was alone in meditation, the following

thought arose in my mind: 'These speculative views have been left

undeclared by the Blessed One.... If he does not declare these to me,

then I will abandon the training and return to the lower life.' If the

Blessed One knows 'the world is eternal,' let the Blessed One declare

to me 'the world is eternal'; if the Blessed One knows 'the world is not

eternal,' let the Blessed One declare to me 'the world is not eternal.' If

the Blessed One does not know either 'the world is eternal' or 'the

230

lite ram to

world is not eternal,' then it is straightforward for one who does not

know and see to say: T do not know and see.'

"If the Blessed One knows 'the world is finite,' ... 'the world is infi-

nite,' ... 'the soul is the same as the body,' ... 'the soul is one thing and

the body another,' ... 'after death a Tathagata exists,' ... 'after death a

Tathagata does not exist.'... If the Blessed One knows 'after death a

Tathagata both exists and does not exist,' let the Blessed One declare

that to me; if the Blessed One knows 'after death a Tathagata neither

exists nor does not exist,' let the Blessed One declare that to me. If the

Blessed One does not know either 'after death a Tathagata both exists

and does not exist' or 'after death a Tathagata neither exists nor does

not exist,' then it is straightforward for one who does not know and see

to say: T do not know and see.'"

4. "How then, Maluhkyaputta, did I ever say to you: 'Come,

Maluhkyaputta, lead the spiritual life under me and I will declare to

you "the world is eternal" ... or "after death a Tathagata neither exists

nor does not exist'"?"—"No, venerable sir."—"Did you ever tell me: T

will lead the spiritual life under the Blessed One, and the Blessed One

will declare to me "the world is eternal" ... or "after death a Tathagata

neither exists nor does not exist"'?"—"No, venerable sir."—"That

being so, misguided man, who are you and what are you abandoning?

5. "If anyone should say thus: T will not lead the spiritual life under

the Blessed One until the Blessed One declares to me "the world is

eternal" ... or "after death a Tathagata neither exists nor does not

exist,'" that would still remain undeclared by the Tathagata and mean-

while that person would die. Suppose, Maluhkyaputta, a man were

wounded by an arrow thickly smeared with poison, and his friends

and companions, his kinsmen and relatives, brought a surgeon to treat

him. The man would say: T will not let the surgeon pull out this arrow

until I know whether the man who wounded me was a khattiya, a

brahmin, a merchant, or a worker.' And he would say: T will not let the

surgeon pull out this arrow until I know the name and clan of the man

who wounded me;... until I know whether the man who wounded me

was tall, short, or of middle height;... until I know whether the man

who wounded me was dark, brown, or golden-skinned;... until I know

whether the man who wounded me lives in such a village, town, or

city;... until I know whether the bow that wounded me was a long

bow or a crossbow;... until I know whether the bowstring that

232 In the Buddha's Words

wounded me was fiber, reed, sinew, hemp, or bark;... until I know

whether the shaft that wounded me was wild or cultivated;... until I

know with what kind of feathers the shaft that wounded me was fit-

ted—whether those of a vulture, a heron, a hawk, a peacock, or a

stork;... until I know with what kind of sinew the shaft that wounded

me was bound—whether that of an ox, a buffalo, a deer, or a mon-

key;.. . until I know what kind of arrowhead it was that wounded me—

whether spiked or razor-tipped or curved or barbed or calf-toothed or

lancet-shaped.'

"All this would still not be known to that man, and meanwhile he

would die. So too, Maluhkyaputta, if anyone should say thus: 'I will

not lead the spiritual life under the Blessed One until the Blessed One

declares to me: "the world is eternal" ... or "after death a Tathagata

neither exists nor does not exist,"' that would still remain undeclared

by the Tathagata and meanwhile that person would die.

6. "Maluhkyaputta, if there is the view 'the world is eternal,' the spir-

itual life cannot be lived; and if there is the view 'the world is not eter-

nal,' the spiritual life cannot be lived. Whether there is the view 'the

world is eternal' or the view 'the world is not eternal,' there is birth,

there is aging, there is death, there are sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejec-

tion, and despair, the destruction of which I prescribe here and now.

"If there is the view 'the world is finite' ... 'the world is infinite' ...

'the soul is the same as the body' ... 'the soul is one thing and the body

another' ... 'after death a Tathagata exists' ... 'after death a Tathagata

does not exist,' the spiritual life cannot be lived.... If there is the view

'after death a Tathagata both exists and does not exist,' the spiritual

life cannot be lived; and if there is the view 'after death a Tathagata

neither exists nor does not exist,' the spiritual life cannot be lived.

Whether there is the view 'after death a Tathagata both exists and does

not exist' or the view 'after death a Tathagata neither exists nor does

not exist,' there is birth, there is aging, there is death, there are sorrow,

lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair, the destruction of which I

prescribe here and now.

7. "Therefore, Maluhkyaputta, remember what I have left unde-

clared as undeclared, and remember what I have declared as declared.

And what have I left undeclared? 'The world is eternal'—I have left

undeclared. 'The world is not eternal'—I have left undeclared. 'The

world is finite'—I have left undeclared. 'The world is infinite'—I have

The Path to Liberation 233

left undeclared. 'The soul is the same as the body'—I have left unde-

clared. 'The soul is one thing and the body another'—I have left unde-

clared. 'After death a Tathagata exists'—I have left undeclared. 'After

death a Tathagata does not exist'—I have left undeclared. 'After death

a Tathagata both exists and does not exist'—I have left undeclared.

'After death a Tathagata neither exists nor does not exist'—I have left

undeclared.

8. "Why have I left that undeclared? Because it is unbeneficial, it

does not belong to the fundamentals of the spiritual life, it does not

lead to disenchantment, to dispassion, to cessation, to peace, to direct

knowledge, to enlightenment, to Nibbana. That is why I have left it

undeclared.

9. "And what have I declared? 'This is suffering'—I have declared.

'This is the origin of suffering'—I have declared. 'This is the cessation

of suffering'—I have declared. 'This is the way leading to the cessa-

tion of suffering'—I have declared.

10. "Why have I declared that? Because it is beneficial, it belongs to

the fundamentals of the spiritual life, it leads to disenchantment, to

dispassion, to cessation, to peace, to direct knowledge, to enlighten-

ment, to Nibbana. That is why I have declared it.

"Therefore, Maluhkyaputta, remember what I have left undeclared

as undeclared, and remember what I have declared as declared."

That is what the Blessed One said. The Venerable Maluhkyaputta

was satisfied and delighted in the Blessed One's words.

(MN 63: Culamaluhkya Sutta; 1426-32)

(2) The Heartwood of the Spiritual Life

1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living at

Rajagaha on Mount Vulture Peak; it was soon after Devadatta had left.

There, referring to Devadatta, the Blessed One addressed the monks

thus:

2. "Monks, here some clansman goes forth out of faith from the

household life into homelessness, considering: T am a victim of birth,

aging, and death, of sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair;

I am a victim of suffering, a prey to suffering. Surely an ending of this

whole mass of suffering can be known.' When he has gone forth thus,

he acquires gain, honor, and renown. He is pleased with that gain,

234 In the Buddha's Words

honor, and renown, and his intention is fulfilled. On account of it he

lauds himself and disparages others thus: 'I obtain gain and renown,

but these other monks are unknown, of no account.' He becomes intox-

icated with that gain, honor, and renown, grows negligent, falls into

negligence, and being negligent, he lives in suffering.

"Suppose a man needing heartwood, seeking heartwood, wandering

in search of heartwood, came to a great tree standing possessed of

heartwood. Passing over its heartwood, its sapwood, its inner bark,

and its outer bark, he would cut off its twigs and leaves and take them

away thinking they were heartwood. Then a man with good sight, see-

ing him, might say: This good man did not know the heartwood, the

sapwood, the inner bark, the outer bark, or the twigs and leaves. Thus,

while needing heartwood, seeking heartwood, wandering in search of

heartwood, he came to a great tree standing possessed of heartwood,

and passing over its heartwood, its sapwood, its inner bark, and its

outer bark, he cut off its twigs and leaves and took them away think-

ing they were heartwood. Whatever it was this good man had to make

with heartwood, his purpose will not be served.' So too is it with this

monk who becomes intoxicated with that gain, honor, and renown.

This monk is called one who has taken the twigs and leaves of the spir-

itual life and stopped short with that.

3. "Here, monks, some clansman goes forth out of faith from the

household life into homelessness, considering: T am a victim of birth,

aging, and death, of sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair;

I am a victim of suffering, a prey to suffering. Surely an ending of

this whole mass of suffering can be known.' When he has gone forth

thus, he acquires gain, honor, and renown. He is not pleased with

that gain, honor, and renown, and his intention is not fulfilled. He

does not, on account of it, laud himself and disparage others. He does

not become intoxicated with that gain, honor, and renown; he does

not grow negligent and fall into negligence. Being diligent, he achieves

the attainment of moral discipline. He is pleased with that attainment

of moral discipline and his intention is fulfilled. On account of it he

lauds himself and disparages others thus: T have moral discipline; I

am of good character; but these other monks are immoral, of bad char-

acter.' He becomes intoxicated with that attainment of moral disci-

pline, grows negligent, falls into negligence, and being negligent, he

lives in suffering.

The Path to Liberation 235

"Suppose a man needing heartwood, seeking heartwood, w

andering

in search of heartwood, came to a great tree standing possessed of

heartwood. Passing over its heartwood, its sapwood, and its inner

bark, he would cut off its outer bark and take it away thinking it was

heartwood. Then a man with good sight, seeing him, might say: 'This

good man did not know the heartwood ... or the twigs and leaves.

Thus, while needing heartwood ... he cut off its outer bark and took it

away thinking it was heartwood. Whatever it was this good man had

to make with heartwood, his purpose will not be served.' So too is it

with this monk who becomes intoxicated with that attainment of moral

discipline. This monk is called one who has taken the outer bark of the

spiritual life and stopped short with that.

4. "Here, monks, some clansman goes forth out of faith from the

household life into homelessness, considering: T am a victim of birth,

aging, and death, of sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair;

I am a victim of suffering, a prey to suffering. Surely an ending of this

whole mass of suffering can be known.' When he has gone forth thus,

he acquires gain, honor, and renown. He is not pleased with that gain,

honor, and renown, and his intention is not fulfilled.... Being diligent,

he achieves the attainment of moral discipline. He is pleased with that

attainment of moral discipline, but his intention is not fulfilled. He

does not, on account of it, laud himself and disparage others. He does

not become intoxicated with that attainment of moral discipline; he

does not grow negligent and fall into negligence. Being diligent, he

achieves the attainment of concentration. He is pleased with that

attainment of concentration and his intention is fulfilled. On account of

it he lauds himself and disparages others thus: T am concentrated; my

mind is unified; but these other monks are scatter-minded, with their

minds astray' He becomes intoxicated with that attainment of concen-

tration, grows negligent, falls into negligence, and being negligent, he

lives in suffering.

"Suppose a man needing heartwood, seeking heartwood, wandering

in search of heartwood, came to a great tree standing possessed of

heartwood. Passing over its heartwood and its sapwood, he would cut

off its inner bark and take it away thinking it was heartwood. Then a

man with good sight, seeing him, might say: 'This good man did not

know the heartwood ... or the twigs and leaves. Thus, while needing

heartwood ... he cut off its inner bark and took it away thinking it was

236 In the Buddha's Words

heartwood. Whatever it was this good man had to make with heart-

wood, his purpose will not be served/ So too is it with this monk who

becomes intoxicated with that attainment of concentration. This monk

is called one who has taken the inner bark of the spiritual life and

stopped short with that.

5. "Here, monks, some clansman goes forth out of faith from the

household life into homelessness, considering: 'I am a victim of birth,

aging, and death, of sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair;

I am a victim of suffering, a prey to suffering. Surely an ending of this

whole mass of suffering can be known.' When he has gone forth thus,

he acquires gain, honor, and renown. He is not pleased with that gain,

honor, and renown, and his intention is not fulfilled.... Being diligent,

he achieves the attainment of moral discipline. He is pleased with that

attainment of moral discipline, but his intention is not fulfilled....

Being diligent, he achieves the attainment of concentration. He is

pleased with that attainment of concentration, but his intention is not

fulfilled. He does not, on account of it, laud himself and disparage

others. He does not become intoxicated with that attainment of con-

centration; he does not grow negligent and fall into negligence. Being

diligent, he achieves knowledge and vision.

He is pleased with that

knowledge and vision and his intention is fulfilled. On account of it

he lauds himself and disparages others thus: T live knowing and see-

ing, but these other monks live unknowing and unseeing.' He

becomes intoxicated with that knowledge and vision, grows negli-

gent, falls into negligence, and being negligent, he lives in suffering.

"Suppose a man needing heartwood, seeking heartwood, wandering

in search of heartwood, came to a great tree standing possessed of

heartwood. Passing over its heartwood, he would cut off its sapwood

and take it away thinking it was heartwood. Then a man with good

sight, seeing him, might say: 'This good man did not know the heart-

wood ... or the twigs and leaves. Thus, while needing heartwood ... he

cut off its sapwood and took it away thinking it was heartwood. What-

ever it was this good man had to make with heartwood, his purpose

will not be served.' So too is it with this monk who becomes intoxi-

cated with that knowledge and vision. This monk is called one who has

taken the sapwood of the spiritual life and stopped short with that.

6. "Here, monks, some clansman goes forth out of faith from the

household life into homelessness, considering: T am a victim of birth,

The Path to Liberation 237

aging, and death, of sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair;

I am a victim of suffering, a prey to suffering. Surely an ending of this

whole mass of suffering can be known.' When he has gone forth thus,

he acquires gain, honor, and renown. He is not pleased with that gain,

honor, and renown, and his intention is not fulfilled.... When he is dili-

gent, he achieves the attainment of moral discipline. He is pleased with

that attainment of moral discipline, but his intention is not fulfilled....

When he is diligent, he achieves the attainment of concentration. He is

pleased with that attainment of concentration, but his intention is not ful-

filled. ... When he is diligent, he achieves knowledge and vision. He is

pleased with that knowledge and vision, but his intention is not fulfilled.

He does not, on account of it, laud himself and disparage others. He

does not become intoxicated with that knowledge and vision; he does

not grow negligent and fall into negligence. Being diligent, he attains

perpetual emancipation. And it is impossible for that monk to fall away

from that perpetual liberation.

"Suppose a man needing heartwood, seeking heartwood, wandering

in search of heartwood, came to a great tree standing possessed of

heartwood, and cutting off only its heartwood, he would take it away

knowing it was heartwood. Then a man with good sight, seeing him,

might say: 'This good man knew the heartwood, the sapwood, the

inner bark, the outer bark, and the twigs and leaves. Thus, while need-

ing heartwood, seeking heartwood, wandering in search of heartwood,

he came to a great tree standing possessed of heartwood, and cutting

off only its heartwood, he took it away knowing it was heartwood.

Whatever it was this good man had to make with heartwood, his pur-

pose will be served.' So too is it with this monk who attains perpetual

liberation.

7. "So this spiritual life, monks, does not have gain, honor, and

renown for its benefit, or the attainment of moral discipline for its ben-

efit, or the attainment of concentration for its benefit, or knowledge

and vision for its benefit. But it is this unshakable liberation of mind

that is the goal of this spiritual life, its heartwood, and its end."

That is what the Blessed One said. The monks were satisfied and

delighted in the Blessed One's words.

(MN 29: Mahasaropama Sutta; 1192-97)

238 In the Buddha's Words

(3) The Fading Away of Lust

"Monks, if wanderers of other sects ask you: Tor what purpose,

friends, is the spiritual life lived under the ascetic Gotama?'—being

asked thus, you should answer them thus: It is, friends, for the fading

away of lust

that the spiritual life is lived under the Blessed One.'

"Then, monks, if the wanderers of other sects ask you: 'But, friends,

is there a path, a way for the fading away of lust?'—being asked thus,

you should answer them thus: 'There is a path, friends, a way for the

fading away of lust.'

"And what, monks, is that path, that way for the fading away of

lust? It is this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view, right intention,

right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindful-

ness, right concentration. This is the path, the way for the fading away

of lust.

"Being asked thus, monks, you should answer those wanderers of

other sects in such a way.

"[Or else you may answer them:] 'It is, friends, for the abandoning

of the fetters ... for the uprooting of the underlying tendencies ... for

the full understanding of the course [of samsara] ... for the destruction

of the taints ... for the realization of the fruit of true knowledge and lib-

eration ... for the sake of knowledge and vision ... for the sake of final

Nibbana without clinging that the spiritual life is lived under the

Blessed One.'

"Then, monks, if the wanderers of other sects ask you: 'But, friends,

is there a path, a way for attaining final Nibbana without clinging?'—

being asked thus, you should answer them thus: 'There is a path,

friends, a way for attaining final Nibbana without clinging.'

"And what, monks, is that path, that way for attaining final Nibbana

without clinging? It is this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ...

right concentration. This is the path, the way for attaining final

Nibbana without clinging.

"Being asked thus, monks, you should answer those wanderers of

other sects in such a way."

(SN 45:41-48, combined; V 27-29)

The Path to Liberation 239

2. ANALYSIS OF THE EIGHTFOLD PATH

"Monks, I will teach you the Noble Eightfold Path, and I will analyze

it for you. Listen and attend closely; I will speak."

"Yes, venerable sir," those monks replied. The Blessed One said this:

"And what, monks, is the Noble Eightfold Path? Right view, right

intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right

mindfulness, and right concentration.

"And what, monks, is right view? Knowledge of suffering, knowl-

edge of the origin of suffering, knowledge of the cessation of suffering,

knowledge of the way leading to the cessation of suffering: this is

called right view.

"And what, monks, is right intention? Intention of renunciation,

intention of non-ill will, intention of harmlessness: this is called right

intention.

"And what, monks, is right speech? Abstinence from false speech,

abstinence from malicious speech, abstinence from harsh speech, absti-

nence from idle chatter: this is called right speech.

"And what, monks, is right action? Abstinence from the destruction

of life, abstinence from taking what is not given, abstinence from sex-

ual misconduct: this is called right action.

"And what, monks, is right livelihood? Here a noble disciple, hav-

ing abandoned a wrong mode of livelihood, earns his living by a right

livelihood: this is called right livelihood.

"And what, monks, is right effort? Here, monks, a monk generates

desire for the nonarising of unarisen evil unwholesome states; he

makes an effort, arouses energy, applies his mind, and strives. He gen-

erates desire for the abandoning of arisen evil unwholesome states....

He generates desire for the arising of unarisen wholesome states.... He

generates desire for the continuation of arisen wholesome states, for

their nondecline, increase, expansion, and fulfillment by development;

he makes an effort, arouses energy, applies his mind, and strives. This

is called right effort.

"And what, monks is right mindfulness? Here, monks, a monk

dwells contemplating the body in the body, ardent, clearly compre-

hending, mindful, having removed longing and dejection in regard to

the world. He dwells contemplating feelings in feelings, ardent, clearly

comprehending, mindful, having removed longing and dejection in

240 In the Buddha's Words

regard to the world. He dwells contemplating mind in mind, ardent,

clearly comprehending, mindful, having removed longing and dejec-

tion in regard to the world. He dwells contemplating phenomena

in phenomena, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful, having

removed longing and dejection in regard to the world. This is called

right mindfulness.

"And what, monks, is right concentration? Here, monks, secluded

from sensual pleasures, secluded from unwholesome states, a monk

enters and dwells in the first jhana, which is accompanied by thought

and examination, with rapture and happiness born of seclusion. With

the subsiding of thought and examination, he enters and dwells in the

second jhana, which has internal confidence and unification of mind,

is without thought and examination, and has rapture and happiness

born of concentration. With the fading away as well of rapture, he

dwells equanimous and, mindful and clearly comprehending, he expe-

riences happiness with the body; he enters and dwells in the third

jhana of which the noble ones declare: 'He is equanimous, mindful,

one who dwells happily.' With the abandoning of pleasure and pain,

and with the previous passing away of joy and dejection, he enters and

dwells in the fourth jhana, which is neither painful nor pleasant and

includes the purification of mindfulness by equanimity. This is called

right concentration."

(SN

45:8; V

8-10)

3. GOOD FRIENDSHIP

Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling

among the Sakyans where there was a town of the Sakyans named

Nagaraka. Then the Venerable Ananda approached the Blessed One,

paid homage to him, sat down to one side, and said:

"Venerable sir, this is half of the spiritual life, that is, good friendship,

good companionship, good comradeship."

"Not so, Ananda! Not so, Ananda! This is the entire spiritual life,

Ananda, that is, good friendship, good companionship, good comrade-

ship. When a monk has a good friend, a good companion, a good com-

rade, it is to be expected that he will develop and cultivate the Noble

Eightfold Path.

The Path to Liberation 241

"And how, Ananda, does a monk with a good friend, a good com-

panion, a good comrade, develop and cultivate the Noble Eightfold

Path? Here, Ananda, a monk develops right view, which is based upon

seclusion, dispassion, and cessation, maturing in release. He develops

right intention ... right speech ... right action ... right livelihood ...

right effort... right mindfulness ... right concentration, which is based

upon seclusion, dispassion, and cessation, maturing in release. It is in

this way, Ananda, that a monk with a good friend, a good companion,

a good comrade, develops and cultivates the Noble Eightfold Path.

"By the following method too, Ananda, it may be understood how

the entire spiritual life is good friendship, good companionship, good

comradeship: by relying upon me as a good friend, Ananda, beings

subject to birth are freed from birth; beings subject to aging are freed

from aging; beings subject to death are freed from death; beings sub-

ject to sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair are freed from

sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair. By this method,

Ananda, it may be understood how the entire spiritual life is good

friendship, good companionship, good comradeship."

(SN

45:2; V

2-3)

4. THE GRADUATED TRAINING

1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living at

Savatthi in Jeta's Grove, Anathapindika's Park.

2. Now on that occasion the brahmin Janussoni was driving out of

Savatthi in the middle of the day in an all-white chariot drawn by

white mares. He saw the wanderer Pilotika coming in the distance and

asked him: "Now where is Master Vacchayana coming from in the

middle of the day?"

"Sir, I am coming from the presence of the ascetic Gotama."

"What does Master Vacchayana think of the ascetic Gotama's lucid-

ity of wisdom? He is wise, is he not?"

"Sir, who am I to know the ascetic Gotama's lucidity of wisdom?

One would surely have to be his equal to know the ascetic Gotama's

lucidity of wisdom."

"Master Vacchayana praises the ascetic Gotama with high praise

indeed."

242 In the Buddha's Words

"Sir, who am I to praise the ascetic Gotama? The ascetic Gotama is

praised by the praised as best among devas and humans."

"What reasons does Master Vacchayana see that he has such firm

confidence in the ascetic Gotama?"

3. "Sir, suppose a wise elephant hunter were to enter an elephant

wood and were to see in the elephant wood a big elephant's footprint,

long in extent and broad across. He would come to the conclusion:

'Indeed, this is a big bull elephant.' So too, when I saw four footprints

of the ascetic Gotama, I came to the conclusion: The Blessed One is

perfectly enlightened, the Dhamma is well expounded by the Blessed

One, the Sahgha is practicing the good way.' What are the four?

4. "Sir, I have seen here certain learned nobles who were clever,

knowledgeable about the doctrines of others, as sharp as hairsplitting

marksmen; they wander about, as it were, demolishing the views of

others with their sharp wits. When they hear: 'The ascetic Gotama will

visit such and such a village or town,' they formulate a question thus:

'We will go to the ascetic Gotama and ask him this question. If he is

asked like this, he will answer like this, and so we will refute his doc-

trine in this way; and if he is asked like that, he will answer like that,

and so we will refute his doctrine in that way'

"They hear: 'The ascetic Gotama has come to visit such and such a

village or town.' They go to the ascetic Gotama, and the ascetic Gotama

instructs, urges, rouses, and gladdens them with a talk on the

Dhamma. After they have been instructed, urged, roused, and glad-

dened by the ascetic Gotama with a talk on the Dhamma, they do not

so much as ask him the question, so how should they refute his doc-

trine? In actual fact, they become his disciples. When I saw this first

footprint of the ascetic Gotama, I came to the conclusion: 'The Blessed

One is perfectly enlightened, the Dhamma is well expounded by the

Blessed One, the Sahgha is practicing the good way.'

5. "A gain, I have seen certain learned brahmins who were clever

In actual fact, they too become his disciples. When I saw this second

footprint of the ascetic Gotama, I came to the conclusion: 'The Blessed

One is perfectly enlightened.

6. "Again, I have seen certain learned householders who were

clever.... In actual fact, they too become his disciples. When I saw this

third footprint of the ascetic Gotama, I came to the conclusion: 'The

Blessed One is perfectly enlightened....'

The Path to Liberation 243

7. "Again, I have seen certain learned ascetics who were clever....

They do not so much as ask him the question, so how should they

refute his doctrine? In actual fact, they ask the ascetic Gotama to allow

them to go forth from the household life into homelessness, and he

gives them the going forth. Not long after they have gone forth,

dwelling alone, withdrawn, diligent, ardent, and resolute, by realiz-

ing it for themselves with direct knowledge they here and now enter

upon and dwell in that supreme goal of the spiritual life for the sake

of which clansmen rightly go forth from the household life into home-

lessness. They say thus: 'We were very nearly lost, we very nearly per-

ished, for formerly we claimed that we were ascetics though we were

not really ascetics; we claimed that we were brahmins though we were

not really brahmins; we claimed that we were arahants though we

were not really arahants. But now we are ascetics, now we are brah-

mins, now we are arahants.' When I saw this fourth footprint of the

ascetic Gotama, I came to the conclusion: 'The Blessed One is perfectly

enlightened....'

"When I saw these four footprints of the ascetic Gotama, I came to

the conclusion: 'The Blessed One is perfectly enlightened, the Dhamma

is well expounded by the Blessed One, the Sahgha is practicing the

good way.'"

8. When this was said, the brahmin Janussoni got down from his all-

white chariot drawn by white mares, and arranging his upper robe on

one shoulder, he extended his hands in reverential salutation toward

the Blessed One and uttered this exclamation three times: "Homage to

the Blessed One, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One! Homage

to the Blessed One, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One!

Homage to the Blessed One, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened

One! Perhaps some time or other I might meet Master Gotama and

have some conversation with him."

9. Then the brahmin Janussoni went to the Blessed One and

exchanged greetings with him. When this courteous and amiable talk

was finished, he sat down to one side and related his entire conversa-

tion with the wanderer Pilotika. Thereupon the Blessed One told him:

"At this point, brahmin, the simile of the elephant's footprint has not

yet been completed in detail. As to how it is completed in detail, listen

and attend carefully to what I shall say."—"Yes, sir," the brahmin

Janussoni replied. The Blessed One said this:

244 In the Buddha's Words

10. "Brahmin, suppose an elephant hunter were to enter an elephant

wood and were to see in the elephant wood a big elephant's footprint,

long in extent and broad across. A wise elephant hunter would not yet

come to the conclusion: 'Indeed, this is a big bull elephant.' Why is

that? In an elephant wood there are small she-elephants that leave a big

footprint, and this might be one of their footprints. He follows it and

sees in the elephant wood a big elephant's footprint, long in extent and

broad across, and some scrapings high up. A wise elephant hunter

would not yet come to the conclusion: 'Indeed, this is a big bull ele-

phant.' Why is that? In an elephant wood there are tall she-elephants

that have prominent teeth and leave a big footprint, and this might be

one of their footprints. He follows it further and sees in the elephant

wood a big elephant's footprint, long in extent and broad across, and

some scrapings high up, and marks made by tusks. A wise elephant

hunter would not yet come to the conclusion: 'Indeed, this is a big bull

elephant.' Why is that? In an elephant wood there are tall she-elephants

that have tusks and leave a big footprint, and this might be one of their

footprints. He follows it further and sees in the elephant wood a big

elephant's footprint, long in extent and broad across, and some scrap-

ings high up, and marks made by tusks, and broken-off branches. And

he sees that bull elephant at the root of a tree or in the open, walking

about, sitting, or lying down. He comes to the conclusion: 'This is that

big bull elephant.'

11. "So too, brahmin, here a Tathagata appears in the world, an ara-

hant, perfectly enlightened, perfect in true knowledge and conduct,

fortunate, knower of the world, unsurpassed leader of persons to be

tamed, teacher of devas and humans, the Enlightened One, the Blessed

One. Having realized with his own direct knowledge this world with

its devas, Mara, and Brahma, this population with its ascetics and brah-

mins, with its devas and humans, he makes it known to others. He

teaches a Dhamma that is good in the beginning, good in the middle,

and good in the end, with the right meaning and expression; he reveals

a holy life that is perfectly complete and purified.

12. "A householder or householder's son or one born in some other

clan hears that Dhamma. On hearing the Dhamma he acquires faith in

the Tathagata. Possessing that faith, he considers thus: 'Household life

is crowded and dusty; life gone forth is wide open. It is not easy, while

living in a home, to lead the spiritual life utterly perfect and pure as a

The Path to

polished shell. Suppose I shave off my hair and beard, put on the ochre

robe, and go forth from the household life into homelessness.' On a later

occasion, abandoning a small or a large fortune, abandoning a small or

a large circle of relatives, he shaves off his hair and beard, puts on the

ochre robe, and goes forth from the household life into homelessness.

13. "Having thus gone forth and possessing the monk's training and

way of life, abandoning the destruction of life, he abstains from the

destruction of life; with rod and weapon laid aside, conscientious, mer-

ciful, he dwells compassionate to all living beings. Abandoning the

taking of what is not given, he abstains from taking what is not given;

taking only what is given, expecting only what is given, by not steal-

ing he dwells in purity. Abandoning sexual relations, he observes

celibacy, living apart, refraining from the coarse practice of sexual inter-

course.

"Abandoning false speech, he abstains from false speech; he speaks

truth, adheres to truth, is trustworthy and reliable, one who is no

deceiver of the world. Abandoning malicious speech, he abstains from

malicious speech; he does not repeat elsewhere what he has heard here

in order to divide [those people] from these, nor does he repeat to these

people what he has heard elsewhere in order to divide [these people]

from those; thus he is one who reunites those who are divided, a pro-

moter of friendships, who enjoys concord, rejoices in concord, delights

in concord, a speaker of words that promote concord. Abandoning

harsh speech, he abstains from harsh speech; he speaks such words as

are gentle, pleasing to the ear, and loveable, as go to the heart, are cour-

teous, desired by many and agreeable to many. Abandoning idle chat-

ter, he abstains from idle chatter; he speaks at the right time, speaks

what is fact, speaks on what is good, speaks on the Dhamma and the

Discipline; at the right time he speaks such words as are worth record-

ing, reasonable, moderate, and beneficial.

"He abstains from injuring seeds and plants. He eats only one meal

a day, abstaining from eating at night and outside the proper time.

He abstains from dancing, singing, music, and unsuitable shows. He

abstains from wearing garlands, smartening himself with scent, and

embellishing himself with unguents. He abstains from high and large

couches. He abstains from accepting gold and silver. He abstains from

accepting raw grain. He abstains from accepting raw meat. He abstains

from accepting women and girls. He abstains from accepting men and

246 In the Buddha's Words

women slaves. He abstains from accepting goats and sheep. He

abstains from accepting fowl and pigs. He abstains from accepting ele-

phants, cattle, horses, and mares. He abstains from accepting fields

and land. He abstains from going on errands and running messages.

He abstains from buying and selling. He abstains from false weights,

false metals, and false measures. He abstains from accepting bribes,

deceiving, defrauding, and trickery. He abstains from wounding, mur-

dering, binding, brigandage, plunder, and violence.

14. "He becomes content with robes to protect his body and with

almsfood to maintain his stomach, and wherever he goes, he sets out

taking only these with him. Just as a bird, wherever it goes, flies with

its wings as its only burden, so too the monk becomes content with

robes to protect his body and with almsfood to maintain his stomach,

and wherever he goes, he sets out taking only these with him. Possess-

ing this aggregate of noble moral discipline, he experiences within

himself the bliss of blamelessness.

15. "On seeing a form with the eye, he does not grasp at its signs

and features.

Since, if he left the eye faculty unguarded, evil unwhole-

some states of longing and dejection might invade him, he practices the

way of its restraint, he guards the eye faculty, he undertakes the

restraint of the eye faculty. On hearing a sound with the ear ... On

smelling an odor with the nose ... On tasting a flavor with the tongue

... On feeling a tactile object with the body ... On cognizing a mental

phenomenon with the mind, he does not grasp at its signs and fea-

tures. Since, if he left the mind faculty unguarded, evil unwholesome

states of longing and dejection might invade him, he practices the way

of its restraint, he guards the mind faculty, he undertakes the restraint

of the mind faculty. Possessing this noble restraint of the sense facul-

ties, he experiences within himself an unsullied bliss.

16. "He becomes one who acts with clear comprehension when going

forward and returning; who acts with clear comprehension when look-

ing ahead and looking away; who acts with clear comprehension when

flexing and extending his limbs; who acts with clear comprehension

when wearing his robes and carrying his outer robe and bowl; who acts

with clear comprehension when eating, drinking, chewing, and tast-

ing; who acts with clear comprehension when defecating and urinating;

who acts with clear comprehension when walking, standing, sitting,

falling asleep, waking up, talking, and keeping silent.

The Tt

17. "Possessing this aggregate of noble moral discipline, and this

noble restraint of the faculties, and possessing this noble mindfulness

and clear comprehension, he resorts to a secluded resting place: the

forest, the root of a tree, a mountain, a ravine, a hillside cave, a charnel

ground, a jungle thicket, an open space, a heap of straw.

18. "On returning from his almsround, after his meal he sits down,

folding his legs crosswise, setting his body erect, and establishing

mindfulness before him. Abandoning longing for the world, he dwells

with a mind free from longing; he purifies his mind from longing.

Abandoning ill will and hatred, he dwells with a mind free from ill

will, compassionate for the welfare of all living beings; he purifies his

mind from ill will and hatred. Abandoning dullness and drowsiness,

he dwells free from dullness and drowsiness, percipient of light, mind-

ful and clearly comprehending; he purifies his mind from dullness and

drowsiness. Abandoning restlessness and remorse, he dwells free from

agitation with a mind inwardly peaceful; he purifies his mind from

restlessness and remorse. Abandoning doubt, he dwells having gone

beyond doubt, unperplexed about wholesome states; he purifies his

mind from doubt.

19. "Having thus abandoned these five hindrances, defilements of

the mind that weaken wisdom, secluded from sensual pleasures,

secluded from unwholesome states, he enters and dwells in the first

jhana, which is accompanied by thought and examination, with rap-

ture and happiness born of seclusion. This, brahmin, is called a foot-

print of the Tathagata, something scraped by the Tathagata, something

marked by the Tathagata, but a noble disciple does not yet come to the

conclusion: 'The Blessed One is perfectly enlightened, the Dhamma is

well expounded by the Blessed One, the Sahgha is practicing the good

way.'

20. "Again, with the subsiding of thought and examination, he enters

and dwells in the second jhana, which has internal confidence and uni-

fication of mind, is without thought and examination, and has rapture

and happiness born of concentration. This too, brahmin, is called a

footprint of the Tathagata ... but a noble disciple does not yet come to

the conclusion: 'The Blessed One is perfectly enlightened....'

21. "Again, with the fading away as well of rapture, he dwells

equanimous and, mindful and clearly comprehending, he experiences

happiness with the body; he enters and dwells in the third jhana of

248 In the Buddha's Words

which the noble ones declare: 'He is equanimous, mindful, one who

dwells happily.' This too, brahmin, is called a footprint of the Tathagata

... but a noble disciple does not yet come to the conclusion: 'The

Blessed One is perfectly enlightened....'

22. "Again, with the abandoning of pleasure and pain, and with the

previous passing away of joy and dejection, he enters and dwells in

the fourth jhana, which is neither painful nor pleasant and includes

the purification of mindfulness by equanimity. This too, brahmin, is

called a footprint of the Tathagata ... but a noble disciple does not yet

come to the conclusion: 'The Blessed One is perfectly enlightened....'

23. "When his mind is thus concentrated, purified, bright, unblem-

ished, rid of defilement, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to

imperturbability, he directs it to knowledge of the recollection of past

lives. He recollects his manifold past lives, that is, one birth, two births,

three births, four births, five births, ten births, twenty births, thirty

births, forty births, fifty births, a hundred births, a thousand births, a

hundred thousand births, many eons of world-contraction, many eons

of world-expansion, many eons of world-contraction and expansion:

'There I was so named, of such a clan, with such an appearance, such

was my nutriment, such my experience of pleasure and pain, such my

life-term; and passing away from there, I was reborn elsewhere; and

there too I was so named, of such a clan, with such an appearance,

such was my nutriment, such my experience of pleasure and pain, such

my life-term; and passing away from there, I was reborn here.' Thus

with their aspects and particulars he recollects his manifold past lives.

This too, brahmin, is called a footprint of the Tathagata ... but a noble

disciple does not yet come to the conclusion: 'The Blessed One is per-

fectly enlightened.

24. "When his mind is thus concentrated, purified, bright, unblem-

ished, rid of defilement, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to

imperturbability, he directs it to knowledge of the passing away and

rebirth of beings. With the divine eye, which is purified and surpasses

the human, he sees beings passing away and being reborn, inferior and

superior, fair and ugly, fortunate and unfortunate. He understands

how beings pass on according to their actions thus: 'These beings who

behaved wrongly by body, speech, and mind, who reviled the noble

ones, held wrong view, and undertook actions based on wrong view,

with the breakup of the body, after death, have been reborn in a state

The Path to Liberation 249

of misery, in a bad destination, in the lower world, in hell; but these

beings who behaved well by body, speech, and mind, who did not

revile the noble ones, who held right view, and undertook action based

on right view, with the breakup of the body, after death, have been

reborn in a good destination, in a heavenly world.' Thus with the

divine eye, which is purified and surpasses the human, he sees beings

passing away and being reborn, inferior and superior, fair and ugly,

fortunate and unfortunate, and he understands how beings pass on

according to their actions. This too, brahmin, is called a footprint of

the Tathagata ... but a noble disciple does not yet come to the conclu-

sion: 'The Blessed One is perfectly enlightened....'

25. "When his mind is thus concentrated, purified, bright, unblem-

ished, rid of defilement, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to

imperturbability, he directs it to knowledge of the destruction of the

taints. He understands as it really is: 'This is suffering. This is the ori-

gin of suffering. This is the cessation of suffering. This is the way lead-

ing to the cessation of suffering.' He understands as it really is: 'These

are the taints. This is the origin of the taints. This is the cessation of the

taints. This is the way leading to the cessation of the taints.'

"This too, brahmin, is called a footprint of the Tathagata, something

scraped by the Tathagata, something marked by the Tathagata, but a

noble disciple still has not yet come to the conclusion: 'The Blessed

One is perfectly enlightened, the Dhamma is well expounded by the

Blessed One, the Sahgha is practicing the good way.' Rather, he is in the

process of coming to this conclusion.

26. "When he knows and sees thus, his mind is liberated from the

taint of sensual desire, from the taint of existence, and from the taint of

ignorance. When it is liberated there comes the knowledge: 'It is liber-

ated.' He understands: 'Birth is destroyed, the spiritual life has been

lived, what had to be done has been done, there is no more coming

back to any state of being.'

"This too, brahmin, is called a footprint of the Tathagata, something

scraped by the Tathagata, something marked by the Tathagata. It is at

this point that a noble disciple has come to the conclusion: 'The Blessed

One is perfectly enlightened, the Dhamma is well expounded by the

Blessed One, the Sahgha is practicing the good way.'

And it is at this

point, brahmin, that the simile of the elephant's footprint has been

completed in detail."

250 In the Buddha's Words

27. When this was said, the brahmin Janussoni said to the Blessed

One: "Magnificent, Master Gotama! Magnificent, Master Gotama!

Master Gotama has made the Dhamma clear in many ways, as though

he were turning upright what had been overthrown, revealing what

was hidden, showing the way to one who was lost, or holding up a

lamp in the dark so those with good eyesight can see forms. I now go

for refuge to Master Gotama, to the Dhamma, and to the Sahgha of

monks. Let Master Gotama accept me as a lay follower who has gone

for refuge from today until life's end/'

(MN 27: Culahatthipadopama Sutta; 1175-84)

5. THE HIGHER STAGES OF TRAINING WITH SIMILES

12. "Here, monks, a monk resorts to a secluded resting place: the for-

est, the root of a tree, a mountain, a ravine, a hillside cave, a charnel

ground, a jungle thicket, an open space, a heap of straw.

13. "On returning from his almsround, after his meal he sits down,

folding his legs crosswise, setting his body erect and establishing mind-

fulness before him. Abandoning longing for the world ... [as in preced-

ing text, §18] ... he purifies his mind from doubt.

14. "Monks, suppose a man were to take a loan and undertake busi-

ness, and his business were to succeed so that he could repay all the

money of the old loan, and there would remain enough extra to main-

tain a wife; on considering this, he would be glad and full of joy. Or

suppose a man were afflicted, suffering and gravely ill, and his food

would not agree with him and his body had no strength, but later he

would recover from the affliction and his food would agree with him

and his body would regain strength; on considering this, he would be

glad and full of joy. Or suppose a man were imprisoned, but later he

would be released, safe and secure, with no loss to his property; on

considering this, he would be glad and full of joy. Or suppose a man

were a slave, not self-dependent but dependent on others, unable to go

where he wants, but later on he would be released from slavery, self-

dependent, independent of others, a free man able to go where he

wants; on considering this, he would be glad and full of joy. Or sup-

pose a man with wealth and property were to enter a road across a

desert, but later on he would cross over the desert, safe and secure,

The Path to Liberation 251

with no loss to his property; on considering this, he would be glad and

full of joy. So too, monks, while these five hindrances have not yet been

abandoned in himself, a monk sees them respectively as a debt, illness,

a prison, slavery, and a road across a desert. But when these five hin-

drances have been abandoned in himself, he sees that as freedom from

debt, recovery from illness, release from prison, freedom from slavery,

and a land of safety.

15. "Having abandoned these five hindrances, defilements of the

mind that weaken wisdom, secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded

from unwholesome states, he enters and dwells in the first jhana,

which is accompanied by thought and examination, with rapture and

happiness born of seclusion. He makes the rapture and happiness born

of seclusion drench, steep, fill, and pervade this body, so that there is

no part of his whole body that is not pervaded by the rapture and hap-

piness born of seclusion. Just as a skilled bath man or a bath man's

apprentice heaps bath powder in a metal basin and, sprinkling it grad-

ually with water, kneads it until the moisture wets his ball of bath pow-

der, soaks it, and pervades it inside and out, yet the ball itself does not

ooze; so too, a monk makes the rapture and happiness born of seclu-

sion drench, steep, fill, and pervade this body, so that there is no part

of his whole body that is not pervaded by the rapture and happiness

born of seclusion.

16. "Again, monks, with the subsiding of thought and examination,

he enters and dwells in the second jhana, which has internal confi-

dence and unification of mind, is without thought and examination,

and has rapture and happiness born of concentration. He makes the

rapture and happiness born of concentration drench, steep, fill, and

pervade this body, so that there is no part of his whole body that is not

pervaded by the rapture and happiness born of concentration. Just as

though there were a lake whose waters welled up from below and it

had no inflow from east, west, north, or south, and would not be

replenished from time to time by showers of rain, then the cool fount

of water welling up in the lake would make the cool water drench,

steep, fill, and pervade the lake, so that there would be no part of the

whole lake that is not pervaded by cool water; so too, a monk makes

the rapture and happiness born of concentration drench, steep, fill, and

pervade this body, so that there is no part of his whole body that is not

pervaded by the rapture and happiness born of concentration.

252 In the Buddha's Words

17. "Again, monks, with the fading away as well of rapture, he

dwells equanimous and, mindful and clearly comprehending, he expe-

riences happiness with the body; he enters and dwells in the third

jhana of which the noble ones declare: 'He is equanimous, mindful,

one who dwells happily.' He makes the happiness divested of rapture

drench, steep, fill, and pervade this body, so that there is no part of his

whole body that is not pervaded by the happiness divested of rapture.

Just as, in a pond of blue or red or white lotuses, some lotuses that are

born and grow in the water thrive immersed in the water without ris-

ing out of it, and cool water drenches, steeps, fills, and pervades them

to their tips and their roots, so that there is no part of all those lotuses

that is not pervaded by cool water; so too, a monk makes the happiness

divested of rapture drench, steep, fill, and pervade this body, so that

there is no part of his whole body that is not pervaded by the happi-

ness divested of rapture.

18. "Again, monks, with the abandoning of pleasure and pain, and

with the previous disappearance of joy and dejection, a monk enters

upon and dwells in the fourth jhana, which has neither-pain-nor-

pleasure and purity of mindfulness due to equanimity. He sits per-

vading this body with a pure bright mind, so that there is no part of

his whole body that is not pervaded by the pure bright mind. Just as

though a man were sitting covered from the head down with a white

cloth, so that there would be no part of his whole body that is not per-

vaded by the white cloth; so too, a monk sits pervading this body with

a pure bright mind, so that there is no part of his whole body that is

not pervaded by the pure bright mind.

19. "When his mind is thus concentrated, purified, bright, unblem-

ished, rid of defilements, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to

imperturbability, he directs it to knowledge of the recollection of past

lives. He recollects his manifold past lives, that is, one birth, two births

... [as in preceding text, §23] ... Thus with their aspects and particulars

he recollects his manifold past lives. Just as a man might go from his

own village to another village and then back again to his own village,

he might think: 'I went from my own village to that village, and there

I stood in such a way, sat in such a way, spoke in such a way, kept silent

in such a way; and from that village I went to that other village, and

there I stood in such a way, sat in such a way, spoke in such a way,

kept silent in such a way; and from that village I came back again to my

Fath to

own village.' So too, a monk recollects his manifold past lives.... Thus

with their aspects and particulars he recollects his manifold past lives.

20. "When his mind is thus concentrated, purified, bright, unblem-

ished, rid of defilements, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to

imperturbability, he directs it to knowledge of the passing away and

rebirth of beings ... [as in preceding text, §24] ... Thus with the divine

eye, which is purified and surpasses the human, he sees beings pass-

ing away and being reborn, inferior and superior, fair and ugly, fortu-

nate and unfortunate, and he understands how beings pass on

according to their actions. Just as though there were two houses with

doors and a man with good sight standing there between them saw

people entering the houses and coming out and passing to and fro, so

too, with the divine eye, which is purified and surpasses the human, a

monk sees beings passing away and being reborn ... and he under-

stands how beings pass on according to their actions.

21. "When his mind is thus concentrated, purified, bright, unblem-

ished, rid of defilements, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to

imperturbability, he directs it to knowledge of the destruction of the

taints. He understands as it actually is: 'This is suffering' ... [as in pre-

ceding text, §§25-26] ... He understands: 'Birth is destroyed, the spir-

itual life has been lived, what had to be done has been done, there is no

more coming back to any state of being.'

"Just as if there were a lake in a mountain recess, clear, limpid, and

undisturbed, so that a man with good sight standing on the bank could

see shells, gravel, and pebbles, and also shoals of fish swimming about

and resting, he might think: 'There is this lake, clear, limpid, and undis-

turbed, and there are these shells, gravel, and pebbles, and also these

shoals of fish swimming about and resting.' So too, a monk under-

stands as it actually is: 'This is suffering.'... He understands: 'Birth is

destroyed, the holy life has been lived, what had to be done has been

done, there is no more coming back to any state of being.'"

(from MN 39: Maha Assapura Sutta; 1274-80)

VIII. Mastering the Mind

i&fi'

l *r

tjNtii I

INTRODUCTION

Having presented a broad overview of the world-transcending path in

the previous chapter, in this chapter and the next I intend to focus more

specifically on two aspects of this path as described in the Nikayas,

meditation and wisdom. As we have seen, the gradual training is

divided into the three sections of moral discipline, concentration, and

wisdom (see pp. 225-26). Moral discipline begins with the observance

of precepts, which anchor one's actions in principles of conscientious

behavior and moral restraint. The undertaking of precepts—for the

Nikayas, particularly the full code of monastic precepts—is called the

training in the higher moral discipline (adhisllasikkha). Moral discipline,

consistently observed, infuses the mind with the purifying force of

moral virtue, generating joy and deeper confidence in the Dhamma.

Established upon moral discipline, the disciple takes up the practice

of meditation, intended to stabilize the mind and clear away the obsta-

cles to the unfolding of wisdom. Because meditation elevates the mind

beyond its normal level, this phase of practice is called the training in

the higher mind (adhicittasikkha). Because it brings inner stillness and

quietude, it is also called the development of serenity (samathabhavana).

Successful practice results in deep concentration or mental unification

(samadhi), also known as internal serenity of mind (ajjhattam ceto-

samatha). The most eminent types of concentration recognized in the

Nikayas are the four jhanas, which constitute right concentration

(samma samadhi) of the Noble Eightfold Path. Beyond the jhanas lie the

four formless attainments (arupasamapatti), which carry the process of

mental unification to still subtler levels.

The third stage of practice is the training in the higher wisdom

(adhipanhasikkha), designed to awaken direct insight into the true

nature of things as disclosed by the Buddha's teaching. This will be

dealt with in detail in the following chapter.

The first selection below, Text VHI,1, is a miscellany of short epi-

grams that stress the need for mental cultivation. The sayings occur

in pairs. In each pair, the first member signals the dangers of the

257

258 In the Buddha's Words

uncultivated mind, the second extols the benefits of the cultivated

mind. The uncultivated mind is easy prey to the defilements—greed,

hatred, and delusion and their offshoots. The defilements generate

unwholesome kamma, which brings painful results both in this life

and in future lives. Since the defilements are the cause of our suffering

and bondage, the path to liberation necessarily involves a meticulous

process of mental training intended to subdue them and ultimately

uproot them from their nesting place in the deep recesses of the mind.

From development of the mind arise happiness, freedom, and peace.

Development of the mind, for the Nikayas, means the development

of serenity (samatha) and insight (vipassana). Text VIII,2(1) says that

when serenity is developed, it leads to concentration and the liberation

of the mind from such emotional defilements as lust and ill will. When

insight is developed, it leads to the higher wisdom of insight into the

true nature of phenomena and permanently liberates the mind from

ignorance. Thus the two things most needed to master the mind are

serenity and insight.

Since concentration is the basis for wisdom, the Nikayas usually

treat the development of serenity as the precursor to the development

of insight. However, because the aptitudes of meditators differ, sev-

eral suttas allow for alternative approaches to this sequence. Text

VIII,2(2) speaks of four approaches to mental cultivation:

1) The first approach, the classical one, is to develop serenity first

and insight afterward. By "serenity" is meant the jhanas or (according

to the Pali commentaries) a state bordering on the jhanas called

"access" or "threshold" concentration (upacarasamadhi).

2) A second approach is to develop insight first and serenity after-

ward. Since there can be no real insight without concentration, such

meditators—presumably people with sharp intellectual faculties—

must initially use concentration as the basis for acquiring insight into

the true characteristics of phenomena. However, it seems that such

concentration, though sufficient for insight, is not strong enough to

allow for a breakthrough to the supramundane path. These medita-

tors must therefore return to the task of unifying the mind before

resuming the work of insight. Such insight, based on concentration,

culminates in the supramundane path.

3) A third approach is to develop serenity and insight in tandem.

Meditators who take this approach first attain a particular level of

Mastering the Mind 259

concentration, such as a jhana or formless attainment, and then employ

it as a basis for insight. Having developed insight, they then return to

concentration, attain a different jhana or formless attainment, and use

that as a basis for insight. Thus they proceed until they reach the supra-

mundane path.

4) The description of the fourth approach is somewhat obscure. The

sutta says that "a monk's mind is seized by agitation about the teach-

ings," and then, some time later, he gains concentration and attains the

supramundane path. This statement suggests a person initially driven

by such intense desire to understand the Dhamma that he or she can-

not focus clearly upon any meditation object. Later, with the aid of cer-

tain supporting conditions, this person manages to subdue the mind,

gain concentration, and attain the supramundane path.

Text VIII,2(3) again confirms that both serenity and insight are nec-

essary, and also indicates the skills needed for their respective practice.

The cultivation of serenity requires skill in steadying, composing, uni-

fying, and concentrating the mind. The cultivation of insight requires

skill in observing, investigating, and discerning conditioned phenom-

ena, spoken of as "formations" (sankhara). In line with the preceding

text, this sutta confirms that some meditators begin by developing inter-

nal serenity of mind, others by developing the higher wisdom of insight

into phenomena, others by developing both in tandem. But while med-

itators may start off differently, eventually they must all strike a healthy

balance between serenity and insight. The exact point of balance

between the two will differ from one person to another, but when a

meditator achieves the appropriate balance, serenity and insight join

forces to issue in the knowledge and vision of the Four Noble Truths.

This knowledge and vision—the world-transcending wisdom—occurs

in four distinct "installments," the four stages of realization which, in

sequence, permanently destroy ignorance along with the affiliated

defilements.

Text VIH,2(2) subsumes these defilements under the

expression "the fetters and underlying tendencies."

The main impediments to the development of serenity and insight

are collectively called the "five hindrances," which we already met in

the extended account of the gradual training (see Text VII,4 §18). Text

VHI,3 states that just as different impurities of water prevent us from

clearly seeing the reflection of our face in a bowl of water, so the five

hindrances prevent us from properly understanding our own good

260 In the Buddha's Words

and the good of others. A meditator's initial efforts therefore have to be

devoted to the task of overcoming the hindrances. Once these are over-

come, success is assured in the practice of serenity and insight.

Text VIII,4 compares the successive stages in the purification of the

mind to the refinement of gold. The meditating monk begins by remov-

ing the gross impurities of bodily, verbal, and mental conduct; this is

achieved by moral discipline and vigilant introspection. Then he elim-

inates the middle-level impurities of unwholesome thoughts: thoughts

of sensuality, ill will, and harmfulness. Next come the subtle impurities

of meandering thoughts. Finally, he must eliminate thoughts about the

Dhamma, the subtlest obstacle. When all such distracting thoughts are

removed, the monk attains "mental unification" (ekodibhava), the basis

for the six "direct knowledges" {abhinna) culminating in arahantship,

the knowledge of the destruction of the taints.

The Nikayas sometimes compare the process of training the mind to

the taming of a wild animal. Just as an animal trainer has to use vari-

ous techniques to bring the animal under control, the meditator has to

draw upon various methods to subdue the mind. It is not enough to be

acquainted with one meditation technique; one must be skilled in a

number of methods intended as antidotes to specific mental obstruc-

tions. In Text VIII,5 the Buddha explains five ancillary techniques—

here called "signs" (nimitta)—that a monk might deploy to eliminate

unwholesome thoughts connected with lust, hatred, and delusion. One

who succeeds in overcoming distracting thoughts by the use of these

techniques is called "a master of the courses of thought."

The suttas teach various techniques of meditation aimed at inducing

concentration. One popular formula pits specific meditation subjects

against the unwholesome mental states they are intended to rectify.

Thus the meditation on the unattractive nature of the body (see Text

VIH,8 §10) is the remedy for sensual lust; loving-kindness is the rem-

edy for ill will; mindfulness of breathing is the remedy for restlessness;

and the perception of impermanence is the remedy for the conceit "I

am."

The perception of impermanence is a subject of insight medita-

tion, the other three subjects of serenity meditation. Loving-kindness

is the first of the four divine abodes (brahmavihara) or immeasurable

states (appamanna) briefly discussed in chapter V: boundless loving-

kindness, compassion, altruistic joy, and equanimity. These are respec-

tively the antidotes to ill will, harmfulness, discontent, and partiality.

Mastering the

Since we already introduced the standard canonical passage on the

divine abodes in connection with meditation as a basis for merit—see

Text V,5(2)—to shed a different spotlight on this practice I have

included here, as Text VIIL6, the famous Simile of the Saw, a passage

that shows loving-kindness in action.

Through the centuries the most popular meditation subjects among

lay Buddhists have probably been the six recollections (anussati): of the

Buddha, the Dhamma, the Sahgha, morality, generosity, and the devas.

Text VIII,7 is an important canonical source for these meditations.

Their themes are especially close to the hearts and everyday experi-

ences of people living household lives in a culture imbued with

Buddhist values. These meditation practices in turn enrich and uplift

their lives, bringing them into closer spiritual contact with the ideals of

religious faith. The first three are primarily devotional recollections

that build upon confidence in the Three Jewels; but while they begin

with faith, they temporarily cleanse the mind of defilements and con-

duce to sustained concentration. The meditation on moral discipline

develops from one's observance of the precepts, a practice aimed at

self-benefit; the recollection of generosity builds upon one's practice of

giving, an altruistic practice; the recollection of the devas is a contem-

plation of the fruits of one's faith, morality, generosity, and wisdom as

they mature in future lives.

The discourse generally considered to offer the most comprehensive

instructions on meditation practice is the Satipatthana Sutta.

Two ver-

sions of this sutta exist, a longer version in the Digha Nikaya, a middle-

length version in the Majjhima Nikaya. The former differs from the

latter only by its extended analysis of the Four Noble Truths, which

may have originally been an early commentary incorporated into the

discourse. The middle-length version is included here as Text VIII,8. An

entire chapter in the Samyutta Nikaya, the Satipatthanasamyutta, is

also devoted to this system of meditation.

The Satipatthana Sutta does not recommend a single meditation sub-

ject nor even a single method of meditation. Its purpose, rather, is to

explain how to establish the mode of contemplation needed to arrive

at realization of Nibbana. The appropriate frame of mind to be estab-

lished, as implied by the title of the sutta, is called an "establishment

of mindfulness." The word satipatthana should probably be understood

as a compound of sati, mindfulness, and upatthana, establishment;

262 In the Buddha's Words

hence "establishment of mindfulness" would be the rendering that best

captures the original meaning. According to the standard formula that

accompanies each exercise, a satipatthana is a mode of dwelling

(viharati). This mode of dwelling involves observation of objects in the

proper frame of mind. The frame of mind consists of three positive

qualities: energy (atapa, "ardor"), mindfulness (sati), and clear compre-

hension (sampajanna). The word sati originally meant memory, but in

the present context it signifies recollection of the present, a sustained

awareness of what is happening to us and within us on each occasion

of experience. Mindfulness, in its initial stages, is concerned with keep-

ing the contemplative mind continually on its object, which means

keeping the object continually present to the mind. Mindfulness pre-

vents the mind from slipping away, from drifting off under the sway

of random thoughts into mental proliferation and forgetfulness. Mind-

fulness is often said to occur in close conjunction with "clear compre-

hension," a clear knowledge and understanding of what one is

experiencing.

The opening formula of the sutta says that one engages in this prac-

tice after "having subdued longing and dejection in regard to the

world" (vineyya loke abhijjha-domanassarn). The expression "having sub-

dued" need not be taken to imply that one must first overcome long-

ing and dejection—which, according to the commentary, signify greed

and aversion and thus represent the five hindrances—before one can

start to practice satipatthana. The expression might be understood to

mean that the practice is itself the means of overcoming longing and

dejection. Thus, while subduing the obstructive influences of greed

and aversion, the meditator arouses the positive qualities of energy,

mindfulness, and clear comprehension, and contemplates four objec-

tive domains: the body, feelings, states of mind, and phenomena. It is

these four objective domains that differentiate mindful observation

into four establishments of mindfulness.

The four objective domains divide the expository portion of the

Satipatthana Sutta into four major sections. Two of these sections, the

first and the fourth, have several subdivisions. When the divisions are

added up, we obtain altogether twenty-one meditation subjects. Several

of these can be used as means to develop serenity (samatha), but the

satipatthana system as a whole seems especially designed for the devel-

opment of insight. The main sections with their divisions are as follows:

Mastering the Mind 263

1. Contemplation of the body (kayanupassana). This comprises fourteen

subjects of meditation: mindfulness of breathing; contemplation of

the four postures; clear comprehension of activities; attention to

the unattractive nature of the body (viewed by way of its organs

and tissues); attention to the elements; and nine charnel ground

contemplations, contemplations based on corpses in different

stages of decomposition.

2. Contemplation of feeling (vedananupassana). Feeling is differenti-

ated into three primary types—pleasant, painful, and neither-

painful-nor-pleasant—which are each further distinguished into

carnal and spiritual feelings. However, because these are all

merely different types of feeling, the contemplation of feeling is

considered one subject.

3. Contemplation of mind (cittanupassana). This is one subject of con-

templation—the mind—differentiated into eight pairs of contrast-

ing states of mind.

4. Contemplation of phenomena (dhammanupassana). The word dhamma

here probably signifies phenomena, which are classified into five

categories governed by the Buddha's teaching, the Dhamma. Thus

dhammanupassana has a dual meaning, "dhammas (phenomena)

contemplated by way of the Dhamma (the teaching)." The five

categories are: the five hindrances, the five aggregates, the six

internal and external sense bases, the seven factors of enlighten-

ment, and the Four Noble Truths.

Although not specified in the sutta, a progressive sequence seems to

be implied by the terms describing each contemplation. In mindful-

ness of breathing one moves to subtler levels of quiescence; in contem-

plation of feeling, one moves toward noncarnal feelings that are neither

painful nor pleasant; in contemplation of mind, one moves toward

states of mind that are concentrated and liberated. These all suggest

that progressive contemplation brings enhanced concentration. In the

contemplation of phenomena, the emphasis shifts toward insight. One

begins by observing and overcoming the five hindrances. The over-

coming of the hindrances marks success in concentration. With the

concentrated mind, one contemplates the five aggregates and the six

sense bases. As contemplation gains momentum, the seven factors of

enlightenment become manifest, and the development of the seven

264 In the Buddha's Words

enlightenment factors culminates in knowledge of the Four Noble

Truths. Knowledge of the Four Noble Truths liberates the mind from

the defilements and thus leads to the attainment of Nibbana. Thus this

system of meditation fulfills the potential ascribed to it by the Buddha

of leading directly to the realization of Nibbana.

Each major contemplative exercise is supplemented by an auxiliary

section, a "refrain" with four subdivisions. The first states that the

meditator contemplates the object internally (within his or her own

experience), externally (reflectively considering it as occurring within

the experience of others), and both; this ensures that one obtains a com-

prehensive and balanced view of the object. The second portion states

that the meditator contemplates the object as subject to origination, as

subject to vanishing, and as subject to both origination and vanishing;

this brings to light the characteristic of impermanence and thus leads

to insight into the three characteristics: impermanence, suffering, and

nonself (anicca, dukkha, anatta). The third states that the meditator is

simply aware of the bare object to the extent necessary for constant

mindfulness and knowledge. And the fourth describes the meditator

as dwelling in a state of complete detachment, not clinging to anything

in the world.

In the Satipatthana Sutta, mindfulness of breathing (anapanasati) is

included as merely one meditation subject among others, but the

Nikayas assign it a position of fundamental importance. The Buddha

said that he used mindfulness of breathing as his main meditation sub-

ject for the attainment of enlightenment (see SN 54:8; V 317). During his

teaching career he occasionally went into seclusion to devote himself

to "the concentration gained through mindfulness of breathing" and he

confers on it a unique honor by calling it "the Tathagata's dwelling"

(SN 54:11; V 326).

Mindfulness of breathing is the subject of an entire chapter in the

Samyutta Nikaya (SN 54, Anapanasamyutta). Whereas the Satipat-

thana Sutta explains mindfulness of breathing by a four-step formula,

the suttas in this collection expand its practice to sixteen steps. Text

VIII,9, from the Anapanasamyutta, describes the sixteen steps. Since

these steps are not necessarily sequential but partly overlap, they

might be thought of as facets rather than actual steps. The sixteen facets

are grouped into four tetrads each of which corresponds to one of the

four establishments of mindfulness. The first tetrad contains the four

Mastering the Mind 265

facets mentioned in the Satipatthana Sutta in its section on contempla-

tion of the body, but the other tetrads extend the practice to the contem-

plations of feelings, mind, and phenomena. Thus the development of

mindfulness of breathing can fulfill not just one but ail four establish-

ments of mindfulness. The four establishments of mindfulness, based

on mindfulness of breathing, in turn fulfill the seven factors of enlight-

enment; and these in turn fulfill true knowledge and liberation. This

exposition thus shows mindfulness of breathing to be a complete sub-

ject of meditation that begins with simple attention to the breath and

culminates in the permanent liberation of the mind.

Finally, in Text VHI,10, the Buddha's chief disciple, the Venerable

Sariputta, testifies to his own achievement of mastery over the mind.

In reply to questions from the Venerable Ananda, he explains how he

is able to dwell for a whole day in each of the jhanas and formless

attainments, as well as in the special attainment called the cessation of

perception and feeling (sannavedayitanirodha). In each case, because he

is an arahant, he can do so without grasping these attainments with

thoughts of "I" and "mine."

VIII. MASTERING THE MIND

1. THE MIND IS THE KEY

1. "I do not perceive even one other thing, O monks, that is so unwieldy

as an undeveloped mind. An undeveloped mind is truly unwieldy.

2. "I do not perceive even one other thing, O monks, that is so wieldy

as a developed mind. A developed mind is truly wieldy.

3. "I do not perceive even one other thing, O monks, that leads to

such great harm as an undeveloped mind. An undeveloped mind leads

to great harm.

4. "I do not perceive even one other thing, O monks, that leads to

such great benefit as a developed mind. A developed mind leads to

great benefit.

9. "I do not perceive even one other thing, O monks, that when unde-

veloped and uncultivated entails such great suffering as the mind. The

mind when undeveloped and uncultivated entails great suffering.

10. "I do not perceive even one other thing, O monks, that when

developed and cultivated entails such great happiness as the mind.

The mind when developed and cultivated entails great happiness."

(AN l:iii,l, 2, 3,4,9,10; I 5-6)

2. DEVELOPING A PAIR OF SKILLS

(1) Serenity and Insight

"Two things, O monks, partake of true knowledge. What two? Seren-

ity and insight.

"When serenity is developed, what benefit does one experience? The

mind is developed. When the mind is developed, what benefit does

one experience? All lust is abandoned.

"When insight is developed, what benefit does one experience? Wis-

dom is developed. When wisdom is developed, what benefit does one

experience? All ignorance is abandoned.

267

268 In the Buddha's Words

"A mind defiled by lust is not liberated; and wisdom defiled by igno-

rance is not developed. Thus, monks, through the fading away of lust

there is liberation of mind; and through the fading away of ignorance

there is liberation by wisdom."

(AN

iii,

10;

I 61)

(2) Four Ways to Arahantship

Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Venerable Ananda was

dwelling at Kosambi in Ghosita's monastery. There the Venerable

Ananda addressed the monks thus:

"Friends!"

"Yes, friend," the monks replied. Thereupon the Venerable Ananda

said:

"Friends, whatever monks or nuns declare before me that they have

attained the final knowledge of arahantship, all these do so in one of

four ways. What four?

"Here, friends, a monk develops insight preceded by serenity.

While he thus develops insight preceded by serenity, the path arises

in him. He now pursues, develops, and cultivates that path, and

while he is doing so the fetters are abandoned and the underlying

tendencies eliminated.

"Or again, friends, a monk develops serenity preceded by insight.

While he thus develops serenity preceded by insight, the path arises in

him. He now pursues, develops, and cultivates that path, and while he

is doing so the fetters are abandoned and the underlying tendencies

eliminated.

"Or again, friends, a monk develops serenity and insight joined in

pairs.

While he thus develops serenity and insight joined in pairs, the

path arises in him. He now pursues, develops, and cultivates that path,

and while he is doing so the fetters are abandoned and the underlying

tendencies eliminated.

"Or again, friends, a monk's mind is seized by agitation about the

teaching.

But there comes a time when his mind becomes internally

steadied, composed, unified, and concentrated; then the path arises in

him. He now pursues, develops, and cultivates that path, and while he

is doing so the fetters are abandoned and the underlying tendencies

eliminated.

Mastering the Mind 269

"Friends, whatever monks or nuns declare before me that they have

attained the final knowledge of arahantship, all these do so in one of

these four ways."

(AN 4:170; II156-57)

(3) Four Kinds of Persons

"These four kinds of persons, O monks, are found existing in the

world. What four?

"Here, monks, a certain person gains internal serenity of mind but

does not gain the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena.

Another

person gains the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena but does

not gain internal serenity of mind. Another person gains neither inter-

nal serenity of mind nor the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena.

And another person gains both internal serenity of mind and the

higher wisdom of insight into phenomena.

"Therein, monks, the person who gains internal serenity of mind but

not the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena should approach

one who gains the higher wisdom and inquire of him: 'How, friend,

should formations be seen? How should formations be explored? How

should formations be discerned with insight?'

The other then answers

him as he has seen and understood the matter thus: 'Formations

should be seen in such a way; they should be explored in such a way;

they should be discerned with insight in such a way' At a later time

this one gains both internal serenity of mind and the higher wisdom of

insight into phenomena.

"Therein, monks, the person who gains the higher wisdom of insight

into phenomena but not internal serenity of mind should approach

one who gains internal serenity and inquire of him: 'How, friend,

should the mind be steadied? How should the mind be composed?

How should the mind be unified? How should the mind be concen-

trated?' The other then answers him as he has seen and understood

the matter thus: 'The mind should be steadied in such a way, com-

posed in such a way, unified in such a way, concentrated in such a

way.' At a later time this one gains both internal serenity of mind and

the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena.

"Therein, monks, the person who gains neither internal serenity of

mind nor the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena should

270 In the Buddha's Words

approach one who gains both and inquire of him: 'How, friend, should

the mind be steadied?... How, friend, should formations be seen?...'

The other then answers him as he has seen and understood the matter

thus: 'The mind should be steadied in such a way.... Formations should

be seen in such a way....' At a later time this one gains both internal

serenity of mind and the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena.

"Therein, monks, the person who gains both internal serenity of

mind and the higher wisdom of insight into phenomena should estab-

lish himself in just these wholesome states and make a further effort for

the destruction of the taints."

(AN 4:94; II 93-95)

3. THE HINDRANCES TO MENTAL DEVELOPMENT

Then the brahmin Sahgarava approached the Blessed One, exchanged

greetings with him, sat down to one side, and said:

"Master Gotama, why is it that sometimes even those texts that have

been recited over a long period do not recur to the mind, let alone those

that have not been recited? And why is it that sometimes those texts

that have not been recited over a long period recur to the mind, let

alone those that have been recited?"

"Brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by sensual lust,

overwhelmed by sensual lust, and one does not understand as it really

is the escape from arisen sensual lust,

on that occasion one neither

knows nor sees as it really is one's own good, or the good of others, or

the good of both. Then even those texts that have been recited over a

long period do not recur to the mind, let alone those that have not been

recited.

"Suppose, brahmin, there is a bowl of water mixed with red, yellow,

blue, or crimson dye. If a man with good sight were to examine his

own facial reflection in it, he would neither know nor see it as it really

is. So too, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by sensual

lust... even those texts that have been recited over a long period do not

recur to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.

"Again, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by ill will,

overwhelmed by ill will, and one does not understand as it really is the

escape from arisen ill will, on that occasion one neither knows nor sees

Mastering the Mind 271

as it really is one's own good, or the good of others, or the good of

both. Then even those texts that have been recited over a long period

do not recur to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.

"Suppose, brahmin, there is a bowl of water being heated over a fire,

bubbling and boiling. If a man with good sight were to examine his

own facial reflection in it, he would neither know nor see it as it really

is. So too, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by ill will

... even those texts that have been recited over a long period do not

recur to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.

"Again, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by dull-

ness and drowsiness, overwhelmed by dullness and drowsiness, and

one does not understand as it really is the escape from arisen dullness

and drowsiness, on that occasion one neither knows nor sees as it really

is one's own good, or the good of others, or the good of both. Then

even those texts that have been recited over a long period do not recur

to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.

"Suppose, brahmin, there is a bowl of water covered over with water

plants and algae. If a man with good sight were to examine his own

facial reflection in it, he would neither know nor see it as it really is. So

too, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by dullness and

drowsiness ... even those texts that have been recited over a long period

do not recur to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.

"Again, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by restless-

ness and remorse, overwhelmed by restlessness and remorse, and one

does not understand as it really is the escape from arisen restlessness

and remorse, on that occasion one neither knows nor sees as it really

is one's own good, or the good of others, or the good of both. Then

even those texts that have been recited over a long period do not recur

to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.

"Suppose, brahmin, there is a bowl of water stirred by the wind, rip-

pling, swirling, churned into wavelets. If a man with good sight were

to examine his own facial reflection in it, he would neither know nor

see it as it really is. So too, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind

obsessed by restlessness and remorse ... even those texts that have

been recited over a long period do not recur to the mind, let alone those

that have not been recited.

"Again, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by doubt,

overwhelmed by doubt, and one does not understand as it really is the

272 In the Buddha's Words

escape from arisen doubt, on that occasion one neither knows nor sees

as it really is one's own good, or the good of others, or the good of

both. Then even those texts that have been recited over a long period

do not recur to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.

"Suppose, brahmin, there is a bowl of water that is turbid, unsettled,

muddy, placed in the dark. If a man with good sight were to examine

his own facial reflection in it, he would neither know nor see it as it

really is. So too, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by

doubt... even those texts that have been recited over a long period do

not recur to the mind, let alone those that have not been recited.

"This, brahmin, is the reason why even those texts that have been

recited over a long period do not recur to the mind, let alone those that

have not been recited.

"Brahmin, when one dwells with a mind that is not obsessed by sen-

sual lust, ill will, dullness and drowsiness, restlessness and remorse,

and doubt, on that occasion even those texts that have not been recited

over a long period recur to the mind, let alone those that have been

recited.

"Suppose, brahmin, there is a bowl of water that is not mixed with

dyes; not bubbling and boiling; not covered over with water plants

and algae; not stirred by the wind and churned into wavelets; clear,

serene, limpid, set out in the light. If a man with good sight were to

examine his own facial reflection in it, he would know and see it as it

really is. So too, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind that is not

obsessed by sensual lust, ill will, dullness and drowsiness, restlessness

and remorse, and doubt on that occasion even those texts that have

not been recited over a long period recur to the mind, let alone those

that have been recited.

"This, brahmin, is the reason why even those texts that have not

been recited over a long period recur to the mind, let alone those that

have been recited."...

When this was said, the brahmin Sahgarava said to the Blessed One:

"Magnificent, Master Gotama!... Let Master Gotama accept me as a

lay follower who has gone for refuge from today until life's end."

(SN 46:55, abridged; V 121-26)

Mastering the Mind 273

4. THE REFINEMENT OF THE MIND

"There are, O monks, gross impurities in gold, such as earth and sand,

gravel and grit. Now the goldsmith or his apprentice first pours the

gold into a trough and washes, rinses, and cleans it thoroughly. When

he has done this, there still remain moderate impurities in the gold,

such as fine grit and coarse sand. Then the goldsmith or his apprentice

washes, rinses, and cleans it again. When he has done this, there still

remain minute impurities in the gold, such as fine sand and black dust.

Now the goldsmith or his apprentice repeats the washing, and there-

after only the gold dust remains.

"He now pours the gold into a melting pot, smelts it, and melts it

together. But he does not yet take it out from the vessel, as the dross has

not yet been entirely removed and the gold is not yet quite pliant,

workable, and bright; it is still brittle and does not yet lend itself eas-

ily to molding. But a time comes when the goldsmith or his apprentice

repeats the melting thoroughly, so that the flaws are entirely removed.

The gold is now quite pliant, workable, and bright, and it lends itself

easily to molding. Whatever ornament the goldsmith now wishes to

make of it, be it a diadem, earrings, a necklace, or a golden chain, the

gold can now be used for that purpose.

"It is similar, monks, with a monk devoted to the training in the

higher mind: there are in him gross impurities, namely, bad conduct of

body, speech, and mind. Such conduct an earnest, capable monk aban-

dons, dispels, eliminates, and abolishes.

"When he has abandoned these, there are still impurities of a mod-

erate degree that cling to him, namely, sensual thoughts, thoughts of ill

will, and thoughts of harming.

Such thoughts an earnest, capable

monk abandons, dispels, eliminates, and abolishes.

"When he has abandoned these, there are still some subtle impuri-

ties that cling to him, namely, thoughts about his relatives, his home

country, and his reputation. Such thoughts an earnest, capable monk

abandons dispels, eliminates, and abolishes.

"When he has abandoned these, there still remain thoughts about

the teaching.

That concentration is not yet peaceful and sublime; it

has not attained to full tranquillity, nor has it achieved mental unifica-

tion; it is maintained by strenuous suppression of the defilements.

"But there comes a time when his mind becomes inwardly steadied,

274 In the Buddha's Words

composed, unified, and concentrated. That concentration is then calm

and refined; it has attained to full tranquillity and achieved mental

unification; it is not maintained by strenuous suppression of the

defilements.

"Then, to whatever mental state realizable by direct knowledge he

directs his mind, he achieves the capacity of realizing that state by

direct knowledge, whenever the necessary conditions obtain.

"If he wishes: 'May I wield the various kinds of spiritual power: hav-

ing been one, may I become many; having been many, may I become

one; may I appear and vanish; go unhindered through a wall, through

a rampart, through a mountain as if through space; dive in and out of

the earth as if it were water; walk on water without sinking as if it were

earth; travel through the sky like a bird while seated cross-legged;

touch and stroke with my hand the moon and sun, so powerful and

mighty; exercise mastery with my body even as far as the brahma

world'—he achieves the capacity of realizing that state by direct

knowledge, whenever the necessary conditions obtain.

"If he wishes: 'With the divine ear element, which is purified and

surpasses the human, may I hear both kinds of sounds, the divine and

human, those that are far as well as near'—he achieves the capacity of

realizing that state by direct knowledge, whenever the necessary con-

ditions obtain.

"If he wishes: 'May I understand the minds of other beings, of other

persons, having encompassed them with my own mind. May I under-

stand a mind with lust as a mind with lust; a mind without lust as a

mind without lust; a mind with hatred as a mind with hatred; a mind

without hatred as a mind without hatred; a mind with delusion as a

mind with delusion; a mind without delusion as a mind without delu-

sion; a contracted mind as contracted, and a distracted mind as dis-

tracted; an exalted mind as exalted, and an unexalted mind as

unexalted; a surpassable mind as surpassable, and an unsurpassable

mind as unsurpassable; a concentrated mind as concentrated, and an

unconcentrated mind as unconcentrated; a liberated mind as liberated,

and an unliberated mind as unliberated'—he achieves the capacity of

realizing that state by direct knowledge, whenever the necessary con-

ditions obtain.

"If he wishes, 'May I recollect my manifold past lives ... [see Text

II,3(2)§38] ... with their modes and details'—he achieves the capacity

Mastering the Mind 275

of realizing that state by direct knowledge, whenever the necessary

conditions obtain.

"If he wishes, 'With the divine eye, which is purified and surpasses

the human, may I see beings passing away and being reborn, inferior

and superior, beautiful and ugly, fortunate and unfortunate ... [see

Text II,3(2)§40] ... and understand how beings fare on in accordance

with their action'—he achieves the capacity of realizing that state by

direct knowledge, whenever the necessary conditions obtain.

"If he wishes, 'By the destruction of the taints, may I in this very life

enter and dwell in the taintless liberation of mind, liberation by wis-

dom, realizing it for myself with direct knowledge'—he achieves the

capacity of realizing that state by direct knowledge, whenever the nec-

essary conditions obtain."

(AN 3:100 §§1-10; 1253-56)

5. THE REMOVAL OF DISTRACTING THOUGHTS

1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living at

Savatthi in Jeta's Grove, Anathapindika's Park. There he addressed the

monks thus: "Monks."—"Venerable sir," they replied. The Blessed One

said this:

2. "Monks, when a monk is pursuing the higher mind, from time to

time he should give attention to five signs.

What are the five?

3. (i) "Here, monks, when a monk is giving attention to some sign,

and owing to that sign there arise in him evil unwholesome thoughts

connected with desire, hate, and delusion, then he should give attention

to some other sign connected with what is wholesome.

When he gives

attention to some other sign connected with what is wholesome, then

any evil unwholesome thoughts connected with desire, hate, and delu-

sion are abandoned in him and subside. With their abandoning his mind

becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and concentrated. Just

as a skilled carpenter or his apprentice might knock out, remove, and

extract a coarse peg by means of a fine one, so too ... when a monk gives

attention to some other sign connected with what is wholesome ... his

mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and concentrated.

4. (ii) "If, while he is giving attention to some other sign connected

with what is wholesome, there still arise in him evil unwholesome

276 In the Buddha's Words

thoughts connected with desire, hate, and delusion, then he should

examine the danger in those thoughts thus: 'These thoughts are

unwholesome, reprehensible, resulting in suffering.' When he exam-

ines the danger in those thoughts, then any evil unwholesome

thoughts connected with desire, hate, and delusion are abandoned in

him and subside. With their abandoning his mind becomes steadied

internally, composed, unified, and concentrated. Just as a man or a

woman, young, youthful, and fond of ornaments, would be horrified,

humiliated, and disgusted if the carcass of a snake or a dog or a human

being were hung around his or her neck, so too ... when a monk exam-

ines the danger in those thoughts ... his mind becomes steadied inter-

nally, composed, unified, and concentrated.

5. (iii) "If, while he is examining the danger in those thoughts, there

still arise in him evil unwholesome thoughts connected with desire,

hate, and delusion, then he should try to forget those thoughts and

should not give attention to them. When he tries to forget those

thoughts and does not give attention to them, then any evil unwhole-

some thoughts connected with desire, hate, and delusion are aban-

doned in him and subside. With their abandoning his mind becomes

steadied internally, composed, unified, and concentrated. Just as a man

with good eyes who did not want to see forms that had come within

range of sight would either shut his eyes or look away, so too ... when

a monk tries to forget those thoughts and does not give attention to

them ... his mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and

concentrated.

6. (iv) "If, while he is trying to forget those thoughts and is not giv-

ing attention to them, there still arise in him evil unwholesome

thoughts connected with desire, hate, and delusion, then he should

give attention to stilling the thought-formation of those thoughts.

When he gives attention to stilling the thought-formation of those

thoughts, then any evil unwholesome thoughts connected with

desire, hate, and delusion are abandoned in him and subside. With

their abandoning his mind becomes steadied internally, composed,

unified, and concentrated. Just as a man walking fast might consider:

'Why am I walking fast? What if I walk slowly?' and he would walk

slowly; then he might consider: 'Why am I walking slowly? What if

I stand?' and he would stand; then he might consider: 'Why am I

standing? What if I sit?' and he would sit; then he might consider:

Mastering the Mind 277

'Why am I sitting? What if I lie down?' and he would lie down. By

doing so he would substitute for each grosser posture one that was

subtler. So too ... when a monk gives attention to stilling the thought-

formation of those thoughts ... his mind becomes steadied internally,

composed, unified, and concentrated.

7. (v) "If, while he is giving attention to stilling the thought-formation

of those thoughts, there still arise in him evil unwholesome thoughts

connected with desire, hate, and delusion, then, with his teeth

clenched and his tongue pressed against the roof of his mouth, he

should beat down, constrain, and crush mind with mind. When, with

his teeth clenched and his tongue pressed against the roof of his

mouth, he beats down, constrains, and crushes mind with mind, then

any evil unwholesome thoughts connected with desire, hate, and

delusion are abandoned in him and subside. With their abandoning

his mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and con-

centrated. Just as a strong man might seize a weaker man by the head

or shoulders and beat him down, constrain him, and crush him, so

too ... when, with his teeth clenched and his tongue pressed against

the roof of his mouth, a monk beats down, constrains, and crushes

mind with mind ... his mind becomes steadied internally, composed,

unified, and concentrated.

8. "Monks, when a monk is giving attention to some sign, and owing

to that sign there arise in him evil unwholesome thoughts connected

with desire, hate, and delusion, then when he gives attention to some

other sign connected with what is wholesome, any such evil unwhole-

some thoughts are abandoned in him and subside, and with their aban-

doning his mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and

concentrated. When he examines the danger in those thoughts ... his

mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and concen-

trated. When he tries to forget those thoughts and does not give atten-

tion to them ... his mind becomes steadied internally, composed,

unified, and concentrated. When he gives attention to stilling the

thought-formation of those thoughts ... his mind becomes steadied

internally, composed, unified, and concentrated. When, with his teeth

clenched and his tongue pressed against the roof of his mouth, he beats

down, constrains, and crushes mind with mind, any such evil

unwholesome thoughts are abandoned in him and subside, and with

their abandoning, his mind becomes steadied internally, composed,

278 In the Buddha's Words

unified, and concentrated. This monk is then called a master of the

courses of thought. He will think whatever thought he wishes to think

and he will not think any thought that he does not wish to think. He

has severed craving, flung off the fetters, and with the complete pene-

tration of conceit he has made an end of suffering."

That is what the Blessed One said. The monks were satisfied and

delighted in the Blessed One's words.

(MN 20: Vitakkasanthana Sutta; 1118-22)

6. THE MIND OF LOVING-KINDNESS

11. "Monks, there are these five courses of speech that others may

use when they address you: their speech may be timely or untimely,

true or untrue, gentle or harsh, connected with good or with harm,

spoken with a mind of loving-kindness or in a mood of hate. When

others address you, their speech may be timely or untimely; when

others address you, their speech may be true or untrue; when others

address you, their speech may be gentle or harsh; when others

address you, their speech may be connected with good or with harm;

when others address you, their speech may be spoken with a mind of

loving-kindness or in a mood of hate. Herein, monks, you should train

thus: 'Our minds will remain unaffected, and we shall utter no bitter

words; we shall abide compassionate for their welfare, with a mind of

loving-kindness, never in a mood of hate. We shall abide pervading

that person with a mind imbued with loving-kindness, and starting

with that person,

we shall abide pervading the all-encompassing

world with a mind imbued with loving-kindness, abundant, exalted,

immeasurable, without hostility, and without ill will.' That is how you

should train, monks....

20. "Monks, even if bandits were to sever you savagely limb by limb

with a two-handled saw, he who gave rise to a mind of hate toward

them would not be carrying out my teaching. Herein, monks, you

should train thus: 'Our minds will remain unaffected, and we shall

utter no bitter words; we shall abide compassionate for their welfare,

with a mind of loving-kindness, never in a mood of hate. We shall

abide pervading them with a mind imbued with loving-kindness; and

starting with them, we shall abide pervading the all-encompassing

ng the Mina z/'

world with a mind imbued with loving-kindness, abundant, exalted,

immeasurable, without hostility, and without ill will.' That is how you

should train, monks.

21. "Monks, if you keep this advice on the simile of the saw con-

stantly in mind, do you see any course of speech, trivial or gross, that

you could not endure?"—"No, venerable sir."—"Therefore, monks,

you should keep this advice on the simile of the saw constantly in

mind. That will lead to your welfare and happiness for a long time."

(from MN 21: Kakacupama Sutta; 1126-27,129)

7. THE SIX RECOLLECTIONS

On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at Kapilavatthu in the

Banyan-tree Monastery. Then Mahanama the Sakyan approached the

Blessed One, paid homage to him, sat down to one side, and said:

"Venerable sir, in what way does a noble disciple often dwell when

he has arrived at the fruit and understood the teaching?"

"When, Mahanama, a noble disciple has arrived at the fruit and

understood the teaching, he often dwells in such a way as this. Here,

a noble disciple recollects the Tathagata thus: 'The Blessed One is an

arahant, perfectly enlightened, accomplished in true knowledge and

conduct, fortunate, knower of the world, unsurpassed leader of per-

sons to be tamed, teacher of devas and humans, the Enlightened One,

the Blessed One.' When a noble disciple recollects the Tathagata thus,

on that occasion his mind is not obsessed by lust, hatred, or delusion;

his mind is straight, with the Tathagata as its object. A noble disciple

whose mind is straight gains the inspiration of the meaning, the inspi-

ration of the Dhamma, gains gladness connected with the Dhamma.

When he is gladdened rapture arises; for one uplifted by rapture the

body becomes calm; one calm in body feels happy; for one who is

happy the mind becomes concentrated. This is called a noble disciple

who dwells evenly amid an uneven population, who dwells without

affliction amid an afflicted population, who has entered upon the

stream of the Dhamma and develops recollection of the Buddha.

"Further, Mahanama, a noble disciple recollects the Dhamma thus:

'The Dhamma is well expounded by the Blessed One, directly visible,

immediate, inviting one to come and see, worthy of application, to be

280 In the Buddha's Words

personally experienced by the wise.' When a noble disciple recollects

the Dhamma thus, on that occasion his mind is not obsessed by lust,

hatred, or delusion; his mind is straight, with the Dhamma as its

object.... This is called a noble disciple who dwells evenly amid an

uneven population, who dwells without affliction amid an afflicted

population, who has entered upon the stream of the Dhamma and

develops recollection of the Dhamma.

"Further, Mahanama, a noble disciple recollects the Sahgha thus:

The Sahgha of the Blessed One's disciples is practicing the good way,

practicing the straight way, practicing the true way, practicing the

proper way; that is, the four pairs of persons, the eight types of indi-

viduals—this Sahgha of the Blessed One's disciples is worthy of gifts,

worthy of hospitality, worthy of offerings, worthy of reverential salu-

tation, the unsurpassed field of merit for the world.' When a noble dis-

ciple recollects the Sahgha thus, on that occasion his mind is not

obsessed by lust, hatred, or delusion; his mind is straight, with the

Sahgha as its object.... This is called a noble disciple who dwells evenly

amid an uneven population, who dwells without affliction amid an

afflicted population, who has entered upon the stream of the Dhamma

and develops recollection of the Sahgha.

"Further, Mahanama, a noble disciple recollects his own moral dis-

cipline thus: T possess the moral virtues dear to the noble ones, unbro-

ken, untorn, unblemished, unmottled, freeing, praised by the wise,

ungrasped, leading to concentration.' When a noble disciple recollects

his own moral discipline thus, on that occasion his mind is not

obsessed by lust, hatred, or delusion; his mind is straight, with virtue

as its object.... This is called a noble disciple who dwells evenly amid

an uneven population, who dwells without affliction amid an afflicted

population, who has entered upon the stream of the Dhamma and

develops recollection of moral discipline.

"Further, Mahanama, a noble disciple recollects his own generosity

thus: 'It is a gain for me, it is well gained by me, that in a population

obsessed by the stain of stinginess, I dwell at home with a mind devoid

of the stain of stinginess, freely generous, open-handed, delighting in

relinquishment, one devoted to charity, delighting in giving and shar-

ing.' When a noble disciple recollects his own generosity thus, on that

occasion his mind is not obsessed by lust, hatred, or delusion; his mind

is straight, with generosity as its object.... This is called a noble disciple

ng tne mina zei

who dwells evenly amid an uneven population, who dwells without

affliction amid an afflicted population, who has entered upon the

stream of the Dhamma and develops recollection of generosity.

"Further, Mahanama, a noble disciple develops the recollection of

the devas thus: 'There are devas in the various heavenly realms.

There

is found in me such faith, moral discipline, learning, generosity, and

wisdom as those devas possessed because of which, when they passed

away from this world, they were reborn there.' When a noble disciple

recollects his own faith, moral discipline, learning, generosity, and wis-

dom, as well as those of the devas, on that occasion his mind is not

obsessed by lust, hatred, or delusion; his mind is straight, with the

devas as its object.... This is called a noble disciple who dwells evenly

amid an uneven population, who dwells without affliction amid an

afflicted population, who has entered upon the stream of the Dhamma

and develops recollection of the devas.

"A noble disciple, Mahanama, who has arrived at the fruit and

understood the teaching often dwells in just this way."

(AN 6:10; III 284-88)

8. THE FOUR ESTABLISHMENTS OF MINDFULNESS

1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living in the

Kuru country where there was a town of the Kurus named Kammasa-

dhamma. There he addressed the monks thus: "Monks."—"Venerable

sir," they replied. The Blessed One said this:

2. "Monks, this is the one-way path

for the purification of beings,

for the surmounting of sorrow and lamentation, for the passing away

of pain and dejection, for the attainment of the true way, for the real-

ization of Nibbana—namely, the four establishments of mindfulness.

3. "What are the four? Here, monks, a monk dwells contemplating

the body in the body, ardent, clearly comprehending, and mindful, hav-

ing subdued longing and dejection in regard to the world.

He dwells

contemplating feelings in feelings, ardent, clearly comprehending, and

mindful, having subdued longing and dejection in regard to the world.

He dwells contemplating mind in mind, ardent, clearly comprehend-

ing, and mindful, having subdued longing and dejection in regard to

the world. He dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena, ardent,

282 In the Buddha's Words

clearly comprehending, and mindful, having subdued longing and

dejection in regard to the world.

[contemplation of the body]

[1. Mindfulness of Breathing]

4. "And how, monks, does a monk dwell contemplating the body in the

body? Here a monk, gone to the forest, to the foot of a tree, or to an

empty hut, sits down; having folded his legs crosswise, straightened his

body, and established mindfulness in front of him, just mindful he

breathes in, mindful he breathes out. Breathing in long, he understands:

'I breathe in long'; or breathing out long, he understands: 'I breathe out

long.' Breathing in short, he understands: 'I breathe in short'; or breath-

ing out short, he understands: 'I breathe out short.'

He trains thus: T

will breathe in experiencing the whole body'; he trains thus: 'I will

breathe out experiencing the whole body.'

He trains thus: 'I will breathe

in tranquilizing the bodily formation'; he trains thus: 'I will breathe out

tranquilizing the bodily formation.'

Just as a skilled lathe-worker or his

apprentice, when making a long turn, understands: 'I make a long turn';

or, when making a short turn, understands: 'I make a short turn'; so too,

breathing in long, a monk understands: 'I breathe in long' ... he trains

thus: 'I will breathe out tranquilizing the bodily formation.'

5. "In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body inter-

nally, or he dwells contemplating the body in the body externally, or

he dwells contemplating the body in the body both internally and

externally.

Or else he dwells contemplating in the body its nature of

arising, or he dwells contemplating in the body its nature of vanish-

ing, or he dwells contemplating in the body its nature of both arising

and vanishing.

Or else mindfulness that 'there is a body' is simply

established in him to the extent necessary for bare knowledge and

repeated mindfulness. And he dwells independent, not clinging to

anything in the world. That is how a monk dwells contemplating the

body in the body.

[2. The Four Postures]

6. "Again, monks, when walking, a monk understands: T am walking';

when standing, he understands: 'I am standing'; when sitting, he under-

stands: T am sitting'; when lying down, he understands: T am lying

down'; or he understands accordingly however his body is disposed.

'Sieving trie ivurut

7. "In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body inter-

nally, externally, and both internally and externally.... And he dwells

independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That too is how a

monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.

[3. Clear Comprehension]

8. "Again, monks, a monk is one who acts with clear comprehension

when going forward and returning;

who acts with clear comprehen-

sion when looking ahead and looking away; who acts with clear com-

prehension when bending and stretching his limbs; who acts with clear

comprehension when wearing his robes and carrying his outer robe

and bowl; who acts with clear comprehension when eating, drinking,

chewing, and tasting; who acts with clear comprehension when defecat-

ing and urinating; who acts with clear comprehension when walking,

standing, sitting, falling asleep, waking up, talking, and keeping silent.

9. "In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body inter-

nally, externally, and both internally and externally.... And he dwells

independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That too is how a

monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.

[4. Unattractiveness of the Body]

10. "Again, monks, a monk reviews this same body up from the soles

of the feet and down from the top of the hair, bounded by skin, as full

of many kinds of impurity thus: Tn this body there are head-hairs,

body-hairs, nails, teeth, skin, flesh, sinews, bones, bone-marrow, kid-

neys, heart, liver, diaphragm, spleen, lungs, intestines, mesentery,

stomach, feces, bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, fat, tears, grease, spit-

tle, snot, oil of the joints, and urine.'

Just as though there were a bag

with an opening at both ends full of many sorts of grain, such as hill

rice, red rice, beans, peas, millet, and white rice, and a man with good

eyes were to open it and review it thus: 'This is hill rice, this is red rice,

these are beans, these are peas, this is millet, this is white rice'; so too,

a monk reviews this same body ... as full of many kinds of impurity

thus: Tn this body there are head-hairs ... and urine.'

11. "In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body

internally, externally, and both internally and externally.... And he

dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That too is

how a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.

284 In the Buddha's Words

[5. Elements]

12. "Again, monks, a monk reviews this same body, however it is

placed, however disposed, as consisting of elements thus: 'In this

body there are the earth element, the water element, the fire element,

and the air element.'

Just as though a skilled butcher or his appren-

tice had killed a cow and were seated at the crossroads with it cut up

into pieces; so too, a monk reviews this same body ... as consisting of

elements thus: 'In this body there are the earth element, the water ele-

ment, the fire element, and the air element.'

13. "In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body inter-

nally, externally, and both internally and externally.... And he dwells

independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That too is how a

monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.

[6-14. The Nine Charnel Ground Contemplations]

14. "Again, monks, as though he were to see a corpse thrown aside in

a charnel ground, one, two, or three days dead, bloated, livid, and ooz-

ing matter, a monk compares this same body with it thus: 'This body

too is of the same nature, it will be like that, it is not exempt from that

fate.'

15. "In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body inter-

nally, externally, and both internally and externally.... And he dwells

independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That too is how a

monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.

16. "Again, as though he were to see a corpse thrown aside in a char-

nel ground, being devoured by crows, hawks, vultures, dogs, jackals,

or various kinds of worms, a monk compares this same body with it

thus: 'This body too is of the same nature, it will be like that, it is not

exempt from that fate.'

17. "...That too is how a monk dwells contemplating the body in

the body.

18-24. "Again, as though he were to see a corpse thrown aside in a

charnel ground, a skeleton with flesh and blood, held together with

sinews ... a fleshless skeleton smeared with blood, held together with

sinews ... a skeleton without flesh and blood, held together with sinews

... disconnected bones scattered in all directions—here a hand-bone,

there a foot-bone, here a shin-bone, there a thigh-bone, here a hip-bone,

there a back-bone, here the skull—a monk compares this same body

Mastering the Mind 285

with it thus: 'This body too is of the same nature, it will be like that, it

is not exempt from that fate.'

25. "...That too is how a monk dwells contemplating the body in

the body.

26-30. "Again, as though he were to see a corpse thrown aside in a

charnel ground, bones bleached white, the color of shells ... bones

heaped up ... bones more than a year old, rotted and crumbled to dust,

a monk compares this same body with it thus: 'This body too is of the

same nature, it will be like that, it is not exempt from that fate.'

31. "In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body inter-

nally, or he dwells contemplating the body in the body externally, or he

dwells contemplating the body in the body both internally and exter-

nally. Or else he dwells contemplating in the body its nature of arising,

or he dwells contemplating in the body its nature of vanishing, or he

dwells contemplating in the body its nature of both arising and vanish-

ing. Or else mindfulness that 'there is a body' is simply established in

him to the extent necessary for bare knowledge and repeated mindful-

ness. And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world.

That too is how a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.

[contemplation of feeling]

32. "And how, monks, does a monk dwell contemplating feelings in

feelings?

Here, when feeling a pleasant feeling, a monk understands:

T feel a pleasant feeling'; when feeling a painful feeling, he under-

stands: T feel a painful feeling'; when feeling a neither-painful-nor-

pleasant feeling, he understands: T feel a neither-painful-nor-pleasant

feeling.' When feeling a carnal pleasant feeling, he understands: T feel

a carnal pleasant feeling'; when feeling a spiritual pleasant feeling, he

understands: T feel a spiritual pleasant feeling'; when feeling a carnal

painful feeling, he understands: T feel a carnal painful feeling'; when

feeling a spiritual painful feeling, he understands: T feel a spiritual

painful feeling'; when feeling a carnal neither-painful-nor-pleasant

feeling, he understands: T feel a carnal neither-painful-nor-pleasant

feeling'; when feeling a spiritual neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling,

he understands: T feel a spiritual neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling.'

33. "In this way he dwells contemplating feelings in feelings inter-

nally, or he dwells contemplating feelings in feelings externally, or

he dwells contemplating feelings in feelings both internally and

286 In the Buddha's Words

externally. Or else he dwells contemplating in feelings their nature of

arising, or he dwells contemplating in feelings their nature of vanish-

ing, or he dwells contemplating in feelings their nature of both aris-

ing and vanishing.

Or else mindfulness that 'there is feeling' is

simply established in him to the extent necessary for bare knowledge

and repeated mindfulness. And he dwells independent, not clinging

to anything in the world. That is how a monk dwells contemplating

feelings in feelings.

[contemplation of mind]

34. "And how, monks, does a monk dwell contemplating mind in

mind?

Here a monk understands a mind with lust as a mind with

lust, and a mind without lust as a mind without lust. He understands

a mind with hatred as a mind with hatred, and a mind without hatred

as a mind without hatred. He understands a mind with delusion as a

mind with delusion, and a mind without delusion as a mind without

delusion. He understands a contracted mind as contracted, and a dis-

tracted mind as distracted. He understands an exalted mind as exalted,

and an unexalted mind as unexalted. He understands a surpassable

mind as surpassable, and an unsurpassable mind as unsurpassable.

He understands a concentrated mind as concentrated, and an uncon-

centrated mind as unconcentrated. He understands a liberated mind as

liberated, and an unliberated mind as unliberated.

35. "In this way he dwells contemplating mind in mind internally, or

he dwells contemplating mind in mind externally, or he dwells con-

templating mind in mind both internally and externally. Or else he

dwells contemplating in mind its nature of arising, or he dwells con-

templating in mind its nature of vanishing, or he dwells contemplating

in mind its nature of both arising and vanishing.

Or else mindfulness

that 'there is mind' is simply established in him to the extent neces-

sary for bare knowledge and repeated mindfulness. And he dwells

independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how a

monk dwells contemplating mind as mind.

[contemplation of phenomena]

[1. The Five Hindrances]

36. "And how, monks, does a monk dwell contemplating phenomena

in phenomena? Here a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in

Mastering the Mind 287

phenomena in terms of the five hindrances.

And how does a monk

dwell contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the five

hindrances? Here, when there is sensual desire in him, a monk under-

stands: There is sensual desire in me'; or when there is no sensual

desire in him, he understands: There is no sensual desire in me'; and

he also understands how unarisen sensual desire arises, and how

arisen sensual desire is abandoned, and how abandoned sensual desire

does not arise again in the future.'

"When there is ill will in him ... When there is dullness and drowsi-

ness in him ... When there is restlessness and remorse in him ... When

there is doubt in him, a monk understands: There is doubt in me'; or

when there is no doubt in him, he understands: There is no doubt in

me'; and he also understands how the unarisen doubt arises, and how

arisen doubt is abandoned, and how abandoned doubt does not arise

again in the future.

37. "In this way he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena

internally, or he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena

externally, or he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena both

internally and externally. Or else he dwells contemplating in phenom-

ena their nature of arising, or he dwells contemplating in phenomena

their nature of vanishing, or he dwells contemplating in phenomena

their nature of both arising and vanishing. Or else mindfulness that

'there are phenomena' is simply established in him to the extent nec-

essary for bare knowledge and repeated mindfulness. And he dwells

independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how a

monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the

five hindrances.

[2. The Five Aggregates]

38. "Again, monks, a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phe-

nomena in terms of the five aggregates subject to clinging.

And how

does a monk dwell contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms

of the five aggregates affected by clinging? Here a monk understands:

'Such is form, such its origin, such its passing away; such is feeling,

such its origin, such its passing away; such is perception, such its ori-

gin, such its passing away; such are the volitional formations, such

their origin, such their passing away; such is consciousness, such its

origin, such its passing away.'

288 In the Buddha's Words

39. "In this way he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena

internally, externally, and both internally and externally.... And he

dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how

a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of

the five aggregates subject to clinging.

[3. The Six Sense Bases]

40. "Again, monks, a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phe-

nomena in terms of the six internal and external sense bases.

And

how does a monk dwell contemplating phenomena in phenomena in

terms of the six internal and external sense bases? Here a monk under-

stands the eye, he understands forms, and he understands the fetter

that arises dependent on both; and he also understands how the

unarisen fetter arises, and how the arisen fetter is abandoned, and how

the abandoned fetter does not arise again in the future.

"He understands the ear, he understands sounds.... He understands

the nose, he understands odors.... He understands the tongue, he

understands flavors.... He understands the body, he understands tac-

tile objects.... He understands the mind, he understands phenomena,

and he understands the fetter that arises dependent on both; and he

also understands how the unarisen fetter arises, and how the arisen

fetter is abandoned, and how the abandoned fetter does not arise again

in the future.

41. "In this way he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena

internally, externally, and both internally and externally.... And he

dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how

a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of

the six internal and external sense bases.

[4. The Seven Enlightenment Factors]

42. "Again, monks, a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phe-

nomena in terms of the seven enlightenment factors.

And how does

a monk dwell contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of

the seven enlightenment factors? Here, when there is the mindfulness

enlightenment factor in him, a monk understands: 'There is the mind-

fulness enlightenment factor in me'; or when there is no mindfulness

enlightenment factor in him, he understands: 'There is no mindfulness

enlightenment factor in me'; and he also understands how the unarisen

Mastering the Mina z»y

mindfulness enlightenment factor arises, and how the arisen mindful-

ness enlightenment factor comes to fulfillment by development.

"When there is the discrimination of phenomena enlightenment fac-

tor in him... When there is the energy enlightenment factor in him ...

When there is the rapture enlightenment factor in him ... When there is

the tranquillity enlightenment factor in him ... When there is the concen-

tration enlightenment factor in him ... When there is the equanimity

enlightenment factor in him, a monk understands: 'There is the equa-

nimity enlightenment factor in me'; or when there is no equanimity

enlightenment factor in him, he understands: 'There is no equanimity

enlightenment factor in me'; and he also understands how the unarisen

equanimity enlightenment factor arises, and how the arisen equanimity

enlightenment factor comes to fulfillment by development.

43. "In this way he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena

internally, externally, and both internally and externally.... And he

dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how

a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of

the seven enlightenment factors.

[5. The Four Noble Truths]

44. "Again, monks, a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phe-

nomena in terms of the Four Noble Truths.

And how does a monk

dwell contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the Four

Noble Truths? Here a monk understands as it really is: 'This is suffer-

ing. This is the origin of suffering. This is the cessation of suffering.

This is the way leading to the cessation of suffering.'

45. "In this way he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena